BRICKLAYING." 


C  ••\\:;-..\  L?,  MAQINNIS. 


REESE  LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Deceived >  19°    • 

Accession  No. 91.409    •   Clots  A< 


i 


BY 

OWEN    B.    MAGINNIS. 


This  book  contains  extensive  detailed  explanations 
of  the  most  approved  modern  methods  of  "Bricklaying," 
as  applied  at  the  beginning  of  the  20th  Century. 

The  information  has  been  obtained  directly  from 
the  work,  during  Construction;  and  is  the  Current 
Practice  and  experience  of  the  best  authorities ;  supple- 
mented by  Chapters  an  "Shoring,"  "  Needling"  and 
"Underpinning."  The  whole  making  an  invaluable 
book  of  reference  for  Architects,  Engineers,  Contractors, 
Builders  and  Mechanics. 

Illustrated  by  over  200  Engravings  with  full 
descriptive  text. 


PUBLISHED    BY 

OWEN  B.   MAGINNIS 

NEW    YORK    CITY. 


£ 


Copyrighted  1899  and  190O 

by 

OWEN  B.  flAGINNIS 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 


CHAPTER  I.          BRICKLAYERS'  TOOLS  AND  THEIR  APPLICATION. 

CHAPTER  II.         LAYING  OR  SETTING  OUT  THE  WORK,   MEASURING  AND 
LEVELING. 

CHAPTER  III.       MIXING  CONCRETES  AND  MORTARS. 

CHAPTER  IV.        BRICKLAYING     AND     BONDING     WALLS     OF     VARIOUS 

THICKNESSES. 

CHAPTER  V.         BUILDING  BRICK  ANGLES,   CORNERS   AND  INTERSECTING 
WALLS. 

CHAPTER  VI.        LAYING  BRICKS  IN  FLEMISH,  RUNNING,  AND  HERRING-BONE 
BONDS.     "FRONT  WORK." 

CHAPTER  VII.      BRICK  ARCHES,    LINTELS,    AND    PIERS.     PARAPET    AND 
HOLLOW  WALLS. 

CHAPTER  VIII.    BUILDING  CHIMNEYS,  FLUES  AND  CHIMNEY  BREASTS. 
CHAPTER  IX.        ANCHORING,  BRACING  AND  FURRING  BRICK  WALLS. 

CHAPTER  X.         GENERAL,  IMPORTANT  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  DETAILS  OF 
BRICKWORK. 


PART   II. 

CHAPTER  I.      SHORING  AND  NEEDLING. 
CHAPTER  II.     UNDERPINNING  AND  SHEET   PILING. 

Q1J.OQ 


INTRODUCTION. 


IN  placing  this  book  before  those  engaged  in  the  practice  of  Engineering, 
Architecture  and  Building  Construction^  I  do  so  with  full  confidence 
that  they  will  appreciate  my  ^ork,  as  such  a  book  is  needed. 

The  contents  are  made  up  of  serial  and  .individual  articles  written  for 
the  most  important  magazines  and  journals  devoted  to  the  Profession  and 
Trade,  and  are  now  collated,  revised,  edited  and  published  together; 
with  other  valuable  information,  given  me  by  those  directing  operations. 
Much,  too,  has  been  gathered  in  my  own  daily  observation  and  experience 
in  building  construction  during  the  past  twenty  years. 

I  beg  to  acknowledge  the  kindness  of  the  publishers  of  the  Scientific 
American,  Architects'  and  Builders'  Magazine,  The  Carpenter,  Carpentry 
and  Building,  and  Science  and  Industry,  who  have  given  me  permission 
to  reproduce  my  articles  originally  published  in  the  above  magazines 
and  journals,  and  which  are,  in  this  book,  grouped  together  so  as  to  be 
comprehensive  and  applicable. 

My  best  thanks  are  extended  to  those  superintending  and  operative 
bricklayers  whose  suggestions  have  enabled  me  to  make  the  book  practical 
and  thoroughly  valuable. 

OWEN  B.  MAGINNIS. 

NEW  YORK  CITY,  January  1st,  1901. 


FRONTISPIECE.     (See  Fig.  3  in  Part  II.) 


CHAPTER  I. 

BRICKLAYERS'  TOOLS  AND  THEIR 
APPLICATION. 

E  building  of  walls  of  bricks  or 
cubes  of  clay,  united  by  lime  or 
1       cement  mortar,  constitutes 
"Bricklaying;"    an  ancient  art, 
the  origin  of  which  dates  back  to  the 
remote  ages  of  antiquity,  when  bricks 
were  at  first  laid,  unburnt;   and  it  is 


ture  in  the  construction  just  described, 
is,  that  a  layer  of  crushed  reeds  mixed 
with  bitumen  was  laid  over  every  sev- 
enth course.  Similar  bricks  to  these 
were  employed  by  the  Egyptians,  but 
there  are  no  remains  of  brickwork  in 
Greece.  Bricks  were  used  largely  in 
ancient  Babylon,  and  in  the  palace  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  bricks  have  been  found 
covered  with  enamels  of  the  brightest 
and  liveliest  colors. 

In  ancient  Rome  burnt  bricks  are  con  • 
sidered  to  have  been  first  used  in  the 


FIG.  1. 


supposed  the  ambitious  "Tower  of 
Babel"  was  constructed  in  this  manner. 
In  the  ruins  of  the  earlier  constructions 


Pantheon  of  Agrippa,  and  both  trian- 
gular and  square  bricks  have  been  found 
there.  In  Roman  ruins  of  antiquity, 


FIG.  2. 


•of  .man,  the  bricks  were  found  to  meas- 
ure abaut  12  inches  square  and  4  inches 
thick,  united  by  mortar  or  cement  com 


backings  of  small  rubble  masonry  were 
used  with  brick  facings,  the  bricks 
being  right-angled  triangles  of  which 


FIG.  3. 

posed  of  earth  and  bitumen.  This  sys-  the  greatest  side  was  that  next  the  face 
tern  is  said  to  still  prevail  in  the  neigh-  of  the  wall,  and  the  right  angles  bonded 
borhood  of  Bagdad,  and  a  strange  fea-  into  the  rubble  work  by  having  the 


8 


BRICKLAYING. 


spaces  filled  in  with  stone.  This  method 
of  bonding  face  brick  somewhat  resem- 
bles our  modern  method,  which  in- 
volves clipping  the  corners  of  the  face 
bricks  and  laying  the  backing  course 
diagonally. 

Before  commencing  to  explain  brick- 
work in  its  application  to  walls  of  vari- 
ous thicknesses,  I  will  give  some  idea  of 
the  attitudes  and  actions  of  the  brick- 
layer at  work  and  explain  the  different 
tools  and  appliances  used  in  brick- 
laying. 

The  first  and  most  essential  tool  the 
bricklayer  uses,  is,  of  course,  the 
Trowel.  This  tool  of  ancient  adoption 
is  at  this  end  of  the  20th  century,  man- 
ufactured to  the  shapes  shown  in  the 
engravings,  Figs.  1,  2  and  3.  Fig.  I  is 
the  famous  London  pattern  or  Brades' 
trowel.  These  trowels  weigh  from  IX 
to  1 Y*  Ibs. ,  are  of  splendid  steel,  and  well 
tempered  and  balanced,  so  as  to  be  easily 
handled  and  used.  Some  American 
bricklayers  prefer  the  Philadelphia  pat- 
tern, Fig.  2,  as  the  weight  of  the  blade 
is  carried  well  back  to  the  handle,  and 
being  broader  is  better  adapted  for  lift- 
ing or  spreading  mortar  and  cutting 
bricks.  The  round  heel  trowels,  Fig.  3, 
are  not  very  popular,  but  are  excellent 
for  cutting,  and  many  good  bricklayers 
prefer  them. 

In  order  to  use  a  trowel  properly,  it 
should  be  held  firmly  yet  loosely,  with 
the  full  grasp  of  the  right  hand  and  ap- 
plied with  the  play  of  the  muscles  of  the 
arm,  wrist  and  fingers.  Only  actual 


done  with  the  muscles  of  the  forearm, 
the  trowel  being  held  in  the  position 
represented  at  Fig.  5,  which  shows  the 


FIG.  5. 


hand  and  arm  of  the  bricklayer  when 
about  to  push  his  trowel  into  the  mortar 
tub.  When  depositing  the  mortar  on 


FIG.  6. 


the  wall,  he  turns  his  trowel  upside 
down,  and  immediately  after  his  arm 
assumes  the  position  Fig.  6,  in  order  to 
spread  the  mortar  over  the  surface  of 


FIG.  4. 


practice  can  give  the  various  mechani- 
cal movements  requisite,  so  that  in  de- 
scribing them  I  will  illustrate  some 
positions  showing  the  practical  applica- 
tion of  this  tool. 

Lifting  a  trowelful  of  mortar  from  the 
tub  or  mortar  board,  seen  in  Fig.  4,  up 
to  the  courses  of  brick  on  the  wall  is 


FIG.  7. 


the  bricks.  When  lifting  a  brick  from 
the  pile  on  the  ground  or  scaffold  in  or- 
der to  place  it  on  its  bed  of  mortar  on  the 
wall,  he  stoops  and  grasps  it  in  his  left 
hand  in  the  way  illustrated  by  engrav- 


BRICKLAYING. 


9 


FIG. 


ing  Fig.  7,  and  lays  it  on  the  wall  in  the 
manner  seen  at  Fig.  8.  If  the  brick  is 
laid  in  a  centre  or  inside  course  or  line, 


Continuing  the  description  of  brick 
mason's  trowels  which  usually  measure 
from  10  to  13  inches  in  length,  the  10- 
inch  being  most  generally  used,  I  would 
now  draw  attention  to  the  five  various 
forms  represented  at  Fig.  11.  These 
trowels  are  used  for  pointing  and  strik- 
ing up  joints  and  removing  the  mortar 
from  the  face  of  the  brickwork  to  make 
a  neat,  clean  job.  They  measure  from 
4  to  7  inches  long,  and  are  applied  with 


FIG.  9. 


he  pushes  or  shoves  it  down  in  its  bed  of 
mortar  with  his  fingers,  Fig.  9,  tapping 
it  down  when  necessary  with  the  edge 


FIG  10. 


of  the  trowel,  held  in  the  right  hand,  in 
the  position  Fig.  10,  which  position  is 
also  assumed  when  he  is  clipping  or  cut- 
ting a  brick  with  its  edge. 


FIG.  11. 


the  muscles  of  the  fingers  and  play  of 
the  wrist  as  before  described. 

As  bricks  are  hard  substances  and  can 
only  be  cut  into  lengths  or  parts  by  the 
action  of  percussive  force,  bricklayers 
follow  two  methods  in  cutting  them. 
The  first  is  by  a  series  of  rapid  blows 
given  with  the  edge  of  the  steel  trowel, 
as  represented  at  Fig.  10,  and  the  other 
is  by  applying  a  brick-cutting  chisel, 


10 


BRICKLAYING. 


mer  and  chisel  are  employed  on  front 
bricks,  which  always  require  to  be  cut 
to  neat  sizes;  being  of  a  very  hard  com- 
position are  brittle  and  liable  to  fracture 
at  the  wrong  place  and  spoil  the  brick. 
Brick  chisels  are  manufactured  from  2j^ 
to  3^  inches  in  width  and  are  ground  to 
a  wedge-shaped  chisel  point.  They  are 
held  in  the  left  hand  when  applying  the 
hammer,  which  weighs  from  1  pound  8 
ounces  to  2  pounds  8  ounces,  being 
wielded  with  the  right  hand.  For  cut- 
ting through  brick  walls  the  cold  chisel, 
Fig.  15,  is  used  with  the  hammer,  Fig. 


FIG.  12. 


13,  and  for  drilling  holes  in  brick  walls 
the  diamond-pointed  drill,  Fig.  16,  is 
best  adapted,  which,  after  each  blow  of 


Fig.  12,  which,  with  the  aid  of  a  brick- 
layer's hammer,   Fig.  13,  applied  to  its 


FIG.  13. 


in  a  series  of  blows  cuts  each  brick 
to  an  exict  size  indicated  on  the  surface 
of  the  brick  by  a  mark.  Sometimes  the 


Double  Edge  Brick  Hammer. 
FIG.  14. 


chisel  pene  of  the  hammer  or  the  double 
pened  hammer,  Fig.  14,  is  used  for  cut- 
ting rough  bricks,  though  nowadays 
only  on  front  bricks,  as  the  trowel  serves 
this  purpose  more  readily  and  the  ham- 


FIG.  16. 


the  hammer  is  turned  to  the  right  to 
loosen  the  point  in  the  materials  of  the 
brick  where  it  has  been  driven  fast  by 
the  impact  of  the  hammer. 

As  bricklaying  is  a  skilled  art,  and  as 
the  Bricklayer  must  be  in  himself  an 
educated  artisan  with  his  brain  and  body 
trained  to  the  movements  of  his  muscles, 
anil  the  application  of  instruments  and 
tools  to  the  erection  of  material,  so  it 
follows  that  he  must  have  instruments 
of  precision  to  ensure  the  mechanical 
and  statical  accuracy  of  his  executed 
work.  For  this  reason  long  usage  and 
experience  have  given  him  a  standard 
set  of  tools  and  implements  which  I  am 
now  describing  as  they  occur  in  actual 
practice,  so  under  the  head  of  "Tools 
and  Accuracy,"  I  will  now  explain  the 
value  of  the  Straight-Edge  Line,  Level, 
Plumb  Rule,  Square,  etc. 

The  Straight-Edge. — Figure  17  is  a 
long  piece  of  selected  pine  wood,  1^  to 
\yz  inches  thick,  6,  8 or  10  inches  wide, 
and  from  10  to  16  feet  long,  and  made 
to  the  exact  shape  delineated  in  the 
sketch.  Its  use  is  to  level  between 
points,  the  ordinary  spirit  level  being 
placed  on  the  top  edge  and  the  ends 
of  the  straight-edge — being  set  on  the 


BRICKLAYING. 


11 


points  to    be    leveled,     as    A    and   B, 
Fig.   17.     By  raising    or  lowering  one 


LeVEL 


FIG.  17.— BRICKLAYERS'  STRAIGHT- 
EDGE AND  LEVEL. 

end  or  the  other  till  the  drop  or  bubble 
in  the  glass  tube  of  the  level  is  exactly 
in  the  center,  which  will  make  the 
straight  edge  perfectly  horizontal,  then 
the  two  points  will  be  level. 


FIG.  18.— PLUMB  BOB  AND  LINE. 


When  the  first  courses  of  brick  are 
laid  on  a  leveled  surface  such  as  a  water 
table,  line  of  steel  girders  or  any  other 
horizontal  surface,  it  is  the  practice  to 
keep  each  course  straight  and  continu- 
ously level  by  placin?  a  line  on  each 
corner  and  when  it  is  stretched  tight  to 
carry  up  the  wall  to  this  line  by  keeping 
the  upp3r  outside  arrises  on  the  edge  of 


each  brick  exactly  to  the  line.  This 
valuable  instrument  with  a  "Plumb 
Bob"  attached  to  it  is  illustrated  at  Fig. 
18.  It  is  simply  a  stout  white  whipcord 
long  enough  to  reach  over  the  extreme 
length  to  be  built,  which  can  be  pur- 
chased in  hanks  or  lengths  of  25,  50,  75 


FIG.  19.— PLUMB 
RULE. 


FIG.  21.— THE  STAN- 
LEY PLUMB  RULE 
AND  LEVEL. 


or  100  feet  as  needed,  and  the  object  of 
the  conically-shaped  solid  of  brass, 
termed  a  "Plumb  Bob,"  shown  in  the 
engraving  attached  to  the  line,  is  to 
weight  the  line  and  keep  it  stretched 
tightly  when  dropped  down  from  a 
height,  when  it  is  desired  to  determine 
if  a  wall  or  corner  is  "plumb." 

The  indispensable  tool,  termed  a 
"  Plumb  Rule,"  with  its  line  and  plumb 
bob,  is  shown  in  the  sketch,  Fig.  19, 
and,  like  the  straight-edge,  it  is  formed 
of  apiece  of  1^-inch  white  pine,  4  or 
4j£  inches  wide  and  from  three  feet  six 
inches  to  four  feet  six  inches  long. 
With  the  aid  of  this  tool  the  bricklayer 
lays  his  bricks  to  a  plumb  or  perfectly 
perpendicular  surface  or  angle,  and  in 


12 


BRICKLAYING. 


order  to  make  clear  the  use  of  this 
tool.  I  will  now  explain  what  is  meant 
by  this  term,  which,  though  very  com- 
mon in  mechanical  phraseology,  is  not 
properly  understood  by  the  majority  of 
mechanics: 


FIG.    20. — DIAGRAM    SECTION    OF  THE 
EARTH'S  PLUMB  AND  LEVEL  LINES. 

As  it  is  now  almost  an  estab- 
lished fact  that  the  outer  surface 
of  the  earth  on  which  we'  live  is 
curved  or  globular,  it  follows  that  all 
lines  drawn  perpendicular  to  a  tangent 
to  this  surface,  will,  if  continued  down 
far  enough,  meet  in  a  common  point 
termed  its  centre,  so  that  the  lines  of 
corners  of  walls  if  continued  down 
would  meet  at  the  centre  of  the  earth, 
see  Fig.  20.  Similarly  if  carried  up  to 
an  extraordinary  height  they  would 
gradually  spread  apart,  or  the  space 
between  the  inside  surf  aces  of  the  walls 
would  widen  as  the  height  increased, 
and  the  walls  would  not  be  parallel  to 
each  other.  It  might  be  here  stated 
that  walls  are  not  exactly  parallel  when 
carried  up  exactly  plumb,  but  the 
earth's  surface  is  so  vast  that  the  differ- 
ence is  unappreciable.  Again,  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  walls  are  kept  together 
by  the  "Attraction  of  Gravitation," 
which  is  an  unseen  force  contained  in 
the  earth  which  pulls  all  bodies  greater 
small  to  its  surface,  directly  at  right 
angles,  so  that  if  a  line  be  attached  to 


any  body  with  a  swinging  weight  at- 
tached to  one  of  its  ends,  as  a  plumb 
bob,  that  weight  or  plumb  bob  will 
slowly  gravitate  or  swing  until  it  stops 
and  the  line  will  hang  plumb.  This  not 
only  happens  when  a  line  and  bob  are 
attached  to  an  object  as  a  tree  post, 
column,  etc.,  but  bodies  such  as  wall  & 


FIG.  22.— STEEL  JOINTER  USED  FOR 
POINTING  JOINTS  IN  FACE  BRICK  WORK. 

can  be,  and  are  constructed  plumb,  with 
the  bob  and  rule,  Fig.  19.  Here  the 
same  principle  prevails,  the  rule  being 
a  piece  of  good  clear  wood  about  \y&  to 
\Yz  inches  thick,  4  inches  wide,  and 
from  three  feet  and  six  inches  to  five 
feet  long,  made  perfectly  parallel  and 
out  of  wind  or  flat  and  is  guaged  with 
a  scratch  line  in  the  centre.  Near  the 
bottom  an  oval  hole  is  cut  in  which  the 
lead  bob  gravitates  or  swings  on  a  line 
fastened  to  the  top  in  the  saw  cut  or 
slot  seen  in  the  engraving.  To  build  a 
wall  plumb,  it  is  only  necessary  to  place 
the  right  or  left  edge  of  the  rule,  allow- 
ing the  bob  to  swing  against  any  of  the 
vertical  edges  or  faces:  carefully  watch- 
ing the  bob  when  it  swings  backwards 


BRICKLAYING. 


13 


and  forwards  so  that,  the  cord  line  ex- 
actly strikes  the  gauged  line  on  the 
face  of  the  rule;  when  it  does  this  the 


«f 


FIG.  23.— HARDWOOD  ROD  FOR  MAKING 
"  RODDED  JOINTS." 

edge  or  face  of  the  wall  is  plumb  as 
desired.     Great  care  should  be  taken  to 

fet  the  bob  as  steady  as  possible.  Fig. 
L  is  an  improved  form  of  plumb  rule 
and  level,  and  contains  a  level  and 
plumb  in  glass  tubes  placed  in  the  open- 
ings, the  glass  tube  being  set  perfectly 
at  right  angles  to  the  edges. 


FIG.   24. — KNIFE     OR     "FRENCHMAN" 
USED  IN  MAKING  "RODDED  JOINTS." 

The  steel  jointer,  Fig.  22,  is  used  for 
tucking  or  jointing  the  mortar  joints  in 
face  brickwork  by  sliding  it  along  the 
joint,  and  as  its  edge  is  of  an  oval  or  el- 
liptic section  it  makes  a  slightly  sunken 
joint  of  this  form.  Sometimes  the  brick, 
layer  uses  this  tool  with  the  • '  Rod, "  Fig. 
23,  which,  however,  is  generally  applieJ 


when  striking  "  Rodded  Joints,"  which 
are  mortar  joints  in  face  brickwork  al- 
lowed to  project  slightly  outside  the  face 
of  the  work,  and  are  cut  to  a  straight 
finish  with  the  knife  or  "Frenchman  " 
seen  at  Fig.  24,  which  is  simply  an  old 
chisel  bent  to  a  right  angled  point  and 
the  sides  filed  to  a  knife  edge.  This 
tool  is  used  like  the  Tuck  Pointing  Tools 
illustrated  in  Fig.  25,  which  are  also 
used  on  top  of  the  rod  for  Rodded 
Joints,  and  can  be  purchased  to  form 
either  a  square  or  oval  bead.  They  are 
made  in  the  following  sizes:  Square, 
X,  5-16,  fa  %  inch;  round,  3-16, 
5-16, 


CHAPTER  II. 

LAYING   OR  SETTING    OUT  THE  WORK, 
MEASURING  AND  LEVELING. 

OBSERVATION  of  the  construction 
of  buildings  has  shown  me  that 
the  use  of  cord  lines  in  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  building  is  not  en- 
tirely appreciated  nor  understood.  With 
a  view,  therefore,  of  impressing  upon 
mechanics,   especially  bricklayers,  the 
utility  of  this  extremely  handy  tool  or  ap- 
pliance and  its  application  in    "laying 
out/'  I  have  inserted  this  chapter. 

Geometrically  defined,  a  straight  line 
is  simply  a  longitudinal  extension,  or 
the  shortest  distance  between  any  two 
points.  Mechanically  or  technically 
defined,  it  is  a  slender  string  stretched 
so  tight  as  to  be  perfectly  straight,  and 
the  shortest 'distance  from  one  point  or 
peg  or  to  another  point  or  peg  placed  at 


FIG.  25. 


FIG.  26— SAMPLES  OF  CORD  LINES. 

a  greater  or  lesser  distance  away  from 
it.  This  quality  gives  the  line  its  great 
value  to  mechanics,  and  they  use  it 
largely  in  laying  out  or  setting  out  al- 
most all  details  of  construction.  Some 
of  the  most  used  I  will  now  describe 
and  show  their  practical  application. 


14 


BRICKLAYING 


First,  as  to  the  line  itself.  It  consists 
of  a  specially  manufactured  whip  cord 
made  in  different  thicknesses  according 
to  the  length  it  must  be  stretched.  At 
Fig.  26  I  show  samples  of  lines  which 
can  be  purchased  in  any  tool  or  hard- 
ware store  in  bundles  or  hanks,  Fig. 


limits  of  the  house  measurement,  which 
can  be  determined  with  the  tape  line  or 
ten  foot  pole  in  the  way  illustrated 
in  the  sketch.  Fig.  30,  and  across 


FIG.  27— A  HANK  LINE. 

27,  up  to  200  feet  in  length,  which  is 
more  than  sufficient  for  ordinary  work. 
It  is  usually  kept  on  a  spool  or  reel  il- 
lustrated in  Fig.  28,  and  thus  conven- 
iently rolled  or  unrolled  as  required.  As 
most  mechanics  are  unfamiliar  with  its 
use,  I  will  now  proceed  with  its  use  as 


FIG.  28— CHALK  LINE  REEL. 

applied  to  the  laying  out  of  foundations 
of  a  building  and  some  of  its  uses  in 
construction . 

Concerning  the  setting  out  of  the 
foundation  of  a  prospective  building, 
say,  for  example,  that  it  is  an  oblong 
shape  measuring  about  25  ft.  front  by 
75  ft.  deep,  I  would  say  that  this  is  a 
most  important  operation  and  demands 
the  utmost  care  and  accuracy  on  the 
part  of  him  who  undertakes  it.  In  the 
cities  and  small  towns  or  villages  each 
lot  is  laid  out  on  the  city  map,  and  a 
survey  can  be  made  by  any  city  surveyor 
and  a  plan  of  same  obtained  by  the 
builder,  but  in  the  country  this  is  un- 
obtainable, and  the  builder  or  brick- 
layer is  compelled  to  report  to  a  mech- 
anical process  to  lay  put  his  site. 

The  plan  followed  is  very  simple.  A 
number  of  stakes  (about  eight,  if  the 
plan  be  square  or  oblong,  and  more  if 
there  be  angles  or  bays  on  the  plan), 
are  sawn  out  as  represented  at  Fig.  29. 
These  are  driven  in  the  ground  about 
on  an  angle  of  45  degrees  on  the  outside 


FIG.   29— BATTER  BOARD  AND  STAKES 
FOR  SAME. 

these,  boards  termed  "  batter 
boards,"  are  nailed  for  the  purpose 
of  holding  the  strings  and  leveling  up 
the  lines.  The  stakes  should  be  of  var- 
ious lengths  so  as  to  admit  of  their 
being  either  driven  down  or  raised  up 
when  leveling.  "When  laying  out,  one 
front  corner  is  first  located,  and  then 
from  this  corner  the  front  building  line 
is  stretched  as  A,  B.  If  tfce  lot  have 
square  angles  ore  side  line  as  C,  D  is 
stretched  keeping  the  angle  about 
square  by  placing  a  true  steel  square  in- 
side the  lines  at  the  corner,  and  one 
man  moving  the  line  in  and  out,  while 
another  holds  the  square  till  the  lines 
touch  the  outside  edges  of  the  blade  and 
tongue. 

Some  mechanics  prefer  to  use  the  old 
reliable  method  which  I  explain  by  Fig. 
31  and  which,  to  my  mind,  is  certainly 
infallible  if  accurately  done.  This 


BRICKLAYING. 


method  is  to  assume  any  three  figures, 
as  6  feet,  8  feet  and  10  feet,  then  to 
measure  off  on  one  side  from  the  corner 
8  feet,  on  the  other  side  6  feet,  so  that 
when  the  lines  are  brought  together  un- 
til the  ends  of  10  foot  pole  touch  each 
point,  the  angle  will  be  a  right  angle  or 
square.  This  method  is  based  on  a 
geometrical  rule  which  states — that  the 
square  of  the  hypothenuse  of  any  right 
angle  triangle,  is  equal  to  the  squares  of 
the  other  two  sides  containing  the  right 


FIG.  30 — BATTER    BOARDS   AND   LINES 
STRETCHED  FOR  EXCAVATING. 


angle.  This,  in  its  practical  application 
to  the  corner,  as  applied  arithmetically, 
is  worked  out  thus  :  8  feet  multiplied  by 
8  feet  -64  feet  ;  6  feet  multiplied  by  6 
feet  =36  feet  ;  64  +36=100  feet  ;  10  feet 
multiplied  by  10  feet=100  feet  ;  so  that 
8  squared  4-  6  squared  =10  squared. 
In  formula,  this  reads  : 


When  the  two  lines  are  stretched  and 
the  square  corner  obtained,  the  opposite 
sides  are  measured  parallel,  and  the 
exact  sizes  determined  thus,  giving  the 
surface  measurements  of  the  ground 
plan4 

But  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  un- 
even and  out  of  level,  and  in  order  to 
carry  up  the  different  details  of  the 
building  level  we  must  make  sure  that 
the  lines  are  also  level.  All  bottoms  or 
footings  in  cities  or  towns  are  supposed 
to  be  set  so  many  feet  below  the  curb 
line  of  the  sidewalk.  It  is,  therefore,  a 


wise  plan  to  set  one  corner  level  with 
the  top  of  the  curb.  This  can  be  done 
by  carrying  it  over  on  a  straight  edge, 
and  having  made  the  corner  level  to 
sight  along  the  line  of  one  side,  and  the 
edge  of  the  straight-edge  till  the  line  is 


I 

CO 


6'-  o 


it 


FIG.  31— CORNER  SQUARED  BY  FIGURES 
6X8X10. 

exactly  level.  Some  prefer  to  place  a 
straight  edge  blocked  up  level  under  the 
line  and  then  to  raise  or  lower  the  line 
till  it  touches  the  edge.  This  method  is 
very  applicable  in  any  location,  but  re- 
quires great  care,  accuracy  and  certain- 
ty of  measurements. 

Continuing  the  practical  use  of  the 
lines,  we  will  now  suppose  the  excava- 
tion of  the  lot  complete  and  the  bottom 
properly  leveled  off,  lines  must  be 
stretched  to  locate  the  trenches  and  the 
position  of  the  piers  and  intermediate 
walls.  Fig.  32  will  convey  a  full  idea 
of  the  application  of  the  lines  in  obtain- 
ing the  exact  situation  of  the  piers,  and 
great  care  must  be  exercised  in  doing 
this  for  the  reason  that  any  mistake 


16 


BRICKLAYING. 


made  in  the  footings  or  foundation 
walla  in  regard  to  their  position,  must 
change  the  layout  of  the  whole  plan 
^.nd  be  carried  up  through  all  the 
stories.  Every  foundation  must,  of 
oourse,  be  laid  out  from  the  foundation 
plan  or  cellar  plan,  and  the  layout,  that 
is  to  say,  the  location  of  each  pier,  wall, 
etc.,  must  be  absolutely  correct,  for,  if 
it  be  not  correct,  then  all  the  lengths  of 
beam  girders,  etc.,  will  be  changed  ac- 
cording to  the  error,  and  the  result  is 


termed iate  walls,  these  should  be 
located  by  centre  lines,  that  is,  by  cord 
lines  stretched  from  one  side  of  the  lot 
to  the  other  side  and  a  plumb  bob  hung 
on  the  line  reaching  down  to  the  bottom 
of  the  excavation.  The  bob  will  give 
the  exact  centre  point,  and  half  the 
thickness  of  the  wall  is  measured  off 
on  each  side.  The  same  operation  is 
gone  through  on  the  opposite  end  of 
the  wall  and  then  a  short  section  is 
built  and  the  guide  lines  stretched  to 


FIG.  32. — SECTION  THROUGH  EXCAVATION  SHOWING  USE  OF  LINES. 


trouble  to  all  concerned.  However,  the 
application  of  the  lines  makes  the  lay- 
ing out  a  comparatively  easy  task,  pro- 
vided care  and  accuracy  are  exercised. 
For  this  reason  this  job  should  be  done 
from  the  plan,  as  I  find  that  masons 
are  sometimes,  a  little  careless  in  the 
measurements.  In  regard  to  the  outer 
walls.  These  are  best  built  from  lines 
stretched  on  their  outside  finished 
faces,  so  that  all  the  work  will  come  in- 
side of  them.  If  there  be  inside  or  in- 


guide  the  work  straight.  For  piers 
the  method  used  is  to  measure  on 
opposite  banks  or  sides  of  the  excava- 
tion and  cross  or  intersect  two  lines 
directly  over  the  central  point  of  the 
proposed  pier,  then,  by  hanging  a 
plumb  bob  and  a  line  from  this  inter- 
section, the  central  point  at  the 
bottom  can  be  marked  and  the  size  of 
the  pier  laid  out  from  it  on  each  side 
half  the  thickness  of  the  footing  of 
the  pier.  By  following  this  method, 


BRICKLAYING 


especially  in  the  case  of  a  very  deep 
cehar,  the  bottom  of  the  excavation 
inside  the  banks  can  be  laid  out  with 
almost  absolute  accuracy.  But,  as  I 
stated  before,  the  measuring  should  be 
slowly  and  carefully  done,  by  the  brick- 
layer using  a  steel  tape  line,  and  pro- 
ving his  marks  by  remeasuring  before 
the  work  is  commenced. 

Concerning  the  levels  of  the  details 
inside  the  excavation,  I  would  state, 
that  the  safest  way  to  obtain  these  is 


ordinary  spirit  level  placed  on  its  top 
edge.  But  bricklayers  should  make 
absolutely  sure  that  the  straight  edge  is 
exactly  parallel  as.  should  it  taper  or 
diminish  towards  either  end,  it  will,  as 
a  consequence,  give  incorrect  levels. 
When  level  points  or  surfaces  are 
found  they  should  be  made  permanent 
by  using  a  heavy  stone  or  driving 
down  a  stout  stake.  When  founda- 
tion walls  and  piers  are  built,  and 
there  is  to  be.  a  frame  building  or 


OF  TRANSEPTS 


i          g 

i, 

FIG.  33. — GROUND  OUTLINE  PLAN  OF  A  CHURCH,  SHOWING  CENTRE  LINES. 


(if  the  excavation  or  area  of  the  build- 
ing be  large,  say  75  x  100  feet  or  over) 
to  use  a  revolving  spirit  level  and  rod 
with  a  telescope  mounted  on  a  tripod. 
This  valuable  instrument  can  be  set 
with  the  plumb  bob,  indicating  the 
centre  of  swing  on  the  centre  of  a 
pier  and  by  revolving  it  around  with 
a  rod  man  holding  the  rod  where 
required,  but  if  this  instrument  be  not 
available,  the  levels  may  be  found 
with  a  long  straight-edge  having  the 


superstructure  raised  upon  them,  no 
one  should  ever  rely  on  their  tops  or 
upper  surfaces  being  exactly  level,  as 
experience  will  show  that  in  many 
cases  bricklayers  or  stone  masons,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  unusually  good 
work,  do  not  carry  their  courses  up 
level.  So  that,  before  commencing  the 
superstructure thetopof  the  wall  should 
be  gone  over  with  the  spirit  level,  and 
its  possible  inaccuracy  discovered,  and, 
should  any  angle  or  corner  be  low, 


BRICKLAYING. 


slate  or  stone  blocking  should  be  used 
to  raise  it  up  level. 

At  Fig.  33,  I  give  the  ground  layout 
or  staking  plan  of  a  large  church  with 
nave  aisles  and  transepts  also  with  an 
"apse"  or  circular  end.  The  points 
«,  a,  a,  represent  wood  stakes  driven 
into  the  ground  to  which  cord  lines 
are  attached  and  stretched  from  stake 
to  stake  12",  away  from  the  outside 
basement  wall  line  of  the  intended 
building.  This  will  show  how  requisite 
lines  are  in  laying  out  and  how  careful 
men  should  be  in  placing  them. 


instruments  most  popular  for  leveling 
in  laying  out  large  works  are  the  en- 
gineer's transit,  theodolite  or  architect's 
Y  level,  all  of  which  are  of  the  utmost 
utility  for  mechanical  operations. 
However,  the  form  of  improvised 
water  level  shown  in  our  engraving  is, 
perhaps,  most  adaptable,  as  it  can  be 
easily  and  cheaply  made,  is  accurate  in 
its  action  and  simple  in  its  application. 
As  will  be  seen,  it  consists  of  a  long 
piece  of  ribbed  rubber  hose  or  pipe,  half 
an  inch  internal  diameter,  with  pieces 
of  transparent  glass  tubing,  twelve  or 


FIG.  33  X.— A  SIMPLE  HYDROSTATIC  LEVEL. 


THE  PRACTICAL  APPLICATION  OF  THE 
HYDROSTATIC  LEVEL  IN  BUILD- 
ING CONSTRUCTION. 

The  science  of  modern  building  con- 
struction necessitates  the  introduction 
of  such  instruments,  tools,  and  appli- 
ances as  will  expedite  the  work  and 
lessen  expense  by  economizing  time. 
Such  an  implement  is  the  hydrostatic 
or  water  level,  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying drawing,  Fig.  33  X.  The 


eighteen  inches  long,  inserted  in  each 
end.  These  glaes  tubes  should,  if  ob- 
tainable, be  graduated  into  inches  and 
parts  of  inches  down  to  sixteenths,  but 
if  graduated  tubes  are  not  to  be  had, 
smooth  tubes  of  clear  thick  glass  of 
chemical  tubing  will  do,  and  a  quarter 
or  half -inch  section  can  be  cut  off  the 
end  of  the  rubber  pipe  and  set  over  the 
glass  tubes,  which  will  slide  up  or  down 
so  as  to  •form  a  gage. 

Water  is  poured  into  the  rubber  hose 
pipe  and  glass  tubes  till  the  ends  over- 


BRICKLAYING. 


19 


flow,  when  they  are  kept  full  by  placing 
a  small  tip  or  faucet  at  the  ends  ofthe 
tubes,  as  shown.  When  in  use,  the 
faucets  must  be  opened  in  order  to 
allow  the  water  to  find  its  own  level. 
One  glass  tube  is  placed  against  the 
wall  which  has  been  built  to  the  re- 
quired height,  being  held  firmly  against 
the  face  of  the  wall  with  the  gage  set 
four,  six  or  eight  inches  from  the  top 
as  desired,  the  gage  being  kept  at  the 
edge  of  the  brick  or  stone  wall  templets 
from  which  the  required  level  is  to  be 
measured.  Here  it  is  held  by  one  man, 
while  another  carries  the  other  glass 
tube  to  the  object  to  be  measured. 
When  the  water  is  exactly  on  the  line 
of  the  gage,  the  level  point  is  deter- 
mined, and  the  distance  of  the  detail 
above  or  below  the  gage  will  denote  the 
discrepancy  in  the  relative  heights. 
This  will  be  readily  understood  from 
the  engraving,  where  this  simple  instru- 
ment is  represented  in  use  as  setting 
the  levels  on  top  of  a  foundation  wall 
for  templets  for  iron  beams,  or  in  a 
position  where  the  transit  or  Y  level 
and  staff  would  not  be  so  convenient  or 
so  applicable.  Many  masons  use  this 
instrument  with  a  rod  for  finding  depth 
of  trenches  for  walls,  piers,  etc.,  for 
leveling  for  templets,  sills,  water  tables, 
or  other  details,  especially  in  an  excava- 
tion which  is  crowded  with  piers, 
shores,  derricks  or  appliances,  which, 
of  course,  render  the  use  of  the  transit 
or  Y  level  impossible. 


CHAPTER  III. 
MIXING  CONCRETES  A^ND  MORTARS. 

WE  will  now  take  up  the  subject  of 
mortar,  dealing  with  it  entirely 
from    a  practical    standpoint, 
avoiding  all  scientific  detail,  and  com- 
mencing with  Lime  Mortar. 

This  mortar  is  made  by  bricklayers' 
laborers,  who,  first,  on  a  platform  of 
planks  form  a  shallow  basin  of  screened 
sand  taken  from  and  close  to  the  sand 
pile.  Into  this  basin  they  dump  one 
barrel  of  lump  lime,  and  on  this  dumped 
lime  they  pour  water  until  the  lime  is 
thoroughly  slaked,  or  the  action  of  the 
water  expels  the  carbonic  acid  gas  re- 
maining in  it  after  " calcining"  for 
lime  is  made  from  calcined  limestone. 
In  the  sand  ba^in  it  steams  and  boils, 
when  being  slaked,  and  it  will  require 
to  absorb  one  quarter  its  own  weight  of 
water  before  it  is  thoroughly  slaked, 


and  will  expand  to  two  or  three  times 
its  lump  size. 

When  the  lime  is  properly  slaked  it  is 
reduced  to  a  slimy  consistency  by  the 
laborers,  who  use  the  "hoe,"  Fig.  34, 
until  the  lime  is  entirely  free  from 
lumps.  While  in  this  state  they  add 
from  two  to  five  barrels  of  clean,  sharp 
sand,  screened  by  dashing  up  against 
the  Sand  Screen,  Fig.  35,  and  continue 
mixing  the  lime  and  sand  together  with 


Fia.  34. 

the  hoe,  until  each  grain  of  sand  is 
covered  with  the  lime  and  the  whole 
mass  is  pasty  and  workable,  under  the 
shovel  and  trowel.  This  thorough 
working  and  mixing  are  indispensable 
to  good  mortar.  When  ready,  it  is 
shoveled  with  the  shovel,  Fig.  36,  into 
the  hod,  Fig.  37,  and  then  conveyed  by 
the  hod  carriers  to  the  bricklayers' 
seaffold  and  there  dumped  into  the 
mortar-box,  Fig.  4.  Lime  mortar 
should  never  be  mixed  too  thin,  and 
care  should  be  exercised  not  to  use 
sand  too  sharp,  or  sand  which  has  any 
percentage  of  loam  in  its  composition. 

Cement.  —  "Cement"  is  a  species 
of  lime,  which  has  the  quality  of 
hardening  or  ' '  setting  "  when  immersed 
in  water.  The  principal  cements  used 
by  bricklayers  in  building  construction 
are  Portland  and  Rosendale.  The  first 
is  an  artificial  composition,  made  up  of 
chalk  and  clay,  moulded  into  cubes, 
burnt  in  a  kiln  to  expel  the  carbonic 
acid  gas,  and  afterwards  ground  into 
fine  dust  or  powder.  The  second, 
Rosendale,  is  a  natural  cement,  and  is 
made  from  limestone,  with  about 
twenty  per  cent,  of  clay. 

Concrete. — This  invaluable  composi- 
tion for  footings  and  foundations  is 
mixed  by  laborers,  who  form  a  tight 
platform  of  planks,  and  on  this  plat- 
form spread  the  ingredients  in  the  fol- 
lowing proportions,  namely  :  4  barrows 
or  barrels  of  clean,  sharp  sand,  and  two 
of  cement,  and  then  with  the  applica- 
tion of  shovels,  Fig.  36,  work  and  turn 
over  the  two,  dry,  until  they  are 
thoroughly  mixed.  On  this  8  barrels  of 
broken  stone  are  dumped  and  the  com- 
bination is  again  turned  over  and 


20 


BRICKLAYING. 


mixed,  while  water  from  a  sprinkler  or 
hose  is  applied  until  each  and  every 
stone  in  the  entire  bed  of  concrete  is 
covered  with  mortar.  This  mixture, 
being  of  the  proportions  of  one  part  of 
cement  to  two  of  sand  and  three  or  five 


form,  one  barrel  or  measure  of  cement, 
one  to  three  barrels  or  parts  of  clean, 
screened,  sharp  sand,  and  thoroughly 
mixes  the  two  with  the  shovel  until 
they  only  show  one  color,  then  he  adda 
the  exact  amount  of  water  required  by 


FIG.  35-SAND  SCREEN.  GRAVEL  SCREEN. 

Small  size,  22  in.  wide,  61  in.  long. 
Large     "     28 "        "    67    "      " 

of  broken  stone,  is  then  shoveled  into 
the  wheelbarrows,  wheeled  to  the 
trench  and  dumped  from  a  height  and 
rammed  down  by  men  with  rammers. 
It  is  usually  spread  in  layers  running 
from  4  to  8  inches  in  thickness,  and 
rammed  till  the  water  shows  on  top  of 
each  layer. 


FIG.  86. 

Cement  Mortar. — This  is  also  prepared 
for  the  use  of  the  bricklayer  by  his 
laborer,  who  spreads  on  a  smooth  plat- 


FIG.  37. 

sprinkling,  and  then  mixes  again  until 
the  mortar  is  brought  to  the  consist- 
ency of  a  plastic  mass. 

The  amount  of  water  required  is 
regulated  by  the  nature  of  the  cement, 
which  can  only  be  determined  by  ex- 
perimenting with  a  small  portion,  and 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  too 
much  water,  as  this  weakens  the 
strength  of  the  cement.  The  state  of 
the  atmosphere  also  will  affect  the 
plastic  nature  of  the  mass,  also  the  dry- 
ness  of  the  sand. 

To  get  great  strength  only  enough 
water  should  be  added  to  make  the 
mortar  resemble  damp  earth.  It  is 
always  best  to  mix  sand  and  cement 
DRY,  in  their  specified  proportions  be- 
fore sprinkling. 

Cement  mortar,  whether  of  Portland 
or  Rosendale,  should  be  mixed  in  small 
quantities,  and  none  that  has  laid  or 
set  over  night  be  used. 

Grout  is  a  mixture  of  cement  and 
sand  mixed  and  worked  to  a  thick 
liquid,  which  is  poured  into  the  brick 
joints  of  piers  or  walls  where  extreme 
strength  is  required.  Much  difference 
of  opinion  prevails  as  to  its  true  value- 
in  giving  extra  strength,  by  creating  a 
greater  cohesive  force,  but  it  uridoubt- 


BRICKLAYING. 


21 


edly  has  the  quality  of  keeping  the  wall 
well  wet  while  setting,  it  enters  every 
hole  and  crevice  in  the  surfaces  of  each 
brick,  and  promotes  a  better  bond  by  a 
fuller  absorption  of  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  into  the  cement,  which  was  expelled 
when  the  gypsum  or  limestone,  which 
composes  it,  was  burnt. 

Lime  and  Cement  Mortar. — When 
brickwork  is  to  be  laid  in  this  mortar, 
it  should  be  composed  of  3  parts  of  lime, 
a  large  proportion  of  sand  and  one  part 
of  fresh  Rosendale  or  Portland  cement. 
The  lime  and  sand  should  be  mixed  and 
worked  by  the  laborers  at  least  two 
days  before  the  cement  is  added  for  a 
final  working,  before  using  in  the  wall. 
Only  small  quantities  of  cement  should 
be  mixed  at  a  time,  as  required,  and 
none  allowed  to  set  over  night. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  use 
mortar  in  cold  weather  the  following 
solution  can  be  advantageously  used : 
When  using  mortar  in  freezing  weather 
insert  and  mix  in  it  1  pound  of  salt  to 
18  gallons  of  water  to  form  a  brine  in 
order  to  prevent  the  water  in  the 
mortar  from  freezing,  and  g  ve  it  time 
to  form  a  bond  with  the  bricks.  It  is, 
however,  a  detrimental  practice  to  use 
salt  in  mortar,  because  it  absorbs  water 
and  keeps  the  mortar  in  the  wall  con- 
stantly damp,  so  that  it  is  best  not  to 
lay  any  brick  in  very  cold  or  frosty 
weather. 

When  mixing  "  Lafarge  "  cement, 
which  is  used  for  "setting  or  backing" 
up  stonework  or  "face  brickwork," 
the  usual  proportions  are  one  part 
cement  to  two  parts  clean,  sharp  sand. 
For  "pointing,"  one  part  this  cement 
to  one  part  white  sand.  This  also  ap- 
plies to  "  Puzzolon,"  another  prepara- 
tion of  cement  used  for  the  foregoing 
purposes.  Sand  being  friable  does  not 
shrink,  and  is  therefore  adaptable  to  all 
mortars,  if  free  from  loam,  dirt  or  other 
injurious  materials. 

The  following  sections  of  the  New 
Building  Code  of  the  City  of  New  York, 
will  be  found  of  value,  as  they  embody 
the  results  of  the  very  best  experience, 
and  the  Measures,  Pronortions  and  Fig- 
ures which  I  have  added  on.  will  prove 
useful  in  writing  specifications: 

PART  IV.     QUALITY  OF  MATERIALS. 

Sec.  13.  Brick.— The  brick  used  in 
all  buildings  shall  be  good,  hard,  well 
burnt  brick. 

Sec.  14.  Sand. — The  sand  used  for 
niDrtar  in  all  buildings  shall  be  clean, 
sharp  grit  sand,  free  from  loam  or  dirt, 


and  shall  not  be  finer  than  the  standard 
samples  kepc  in  the  office  of  the  De- 
partment of  Buildings. 

Sec.  15.  Li  me  Mortar. — Lime  mortar 
shall  be  made  of  one  part  of  lime  and 
not  more  than  four  parts  of  sand.  All 
lime  used  for  mortar  shall  be  thorough, 
ly  burnt,  of  good  quality,  and  properly 
slaked  before  it  is  mixed  with  the  sand. 

Sec.  16.  Cement  Mortar. — Cement 
mortar  shall  be  made  of  cement  and 
sand  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of 
cement,  and  not  more  than  three  parts 
of  sand,  and  shall  be  used  immediately 
after  being  mixed.  The  cement  and 
sand  are  to  be  measured  and  thoroughly 
mixed  before  adding  water. 

Cements  must  be  very  finely  ground 
and  free  from  lumps. 

Cements  classed  as  Portland  cement 
shall  be  considered  to  mean  such  cement 
as  will,  when  tested  neat,  after  one  day 
set  in  air  be  capable  of  sustaining  with- 
out rupture  a  tensile  strain  of  at  least 
120  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  after 
one  day  in  air  and  six  days  in  water  be 
capable  of  sustaining  without  rupture 
a  tensile  strain  of  at  least  300  pounds 
per  square  inch.  Cements  other  than 
Portland  cement  shall  be  considered  to 
mean  such  cement  as  will,  when  tested 
neat,  after  1  day  set  in  air  be  capable 
of  sustaining  without  rupture  a  tensile 
strain  of  at  least  60  pounds  per  square 
inch,  and  after  1  day  in  air  and  H  days 
in  water  be  capable  of  sustaining  without 
rupture  a  tensile  strain  of  at  least  120 
pounds  per  square  inch.  Said  tests  are 
to  be  made  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Buildings  having  juris- 
diction, at  such  times  as  he  may  deter- 
mine, and  a  record  of  all  cements 
answering  the  above  requirements 
shall  be  kept  for  public  information. 

Sec.  17.  Cement  and  Lime  Mortar. — 
Cement  and  lime  mortar  mixed  shall  be 
made  of  one  part  of  lime,  one  part  of 
cement  and  not  more  than  three  parts 
of  sand  to  each. 

Sec.  18.  Concrete. — Concrete  for 
foundation  shall  be  made  of  at  least  one 
part  of  cement,  two  parts  of  sand  and 
five  parts  of  clean  broken  stone,  of  such 
size  so  as  to  pass  in  any  way  through  a 
2  inch  ring,  or  good,  clean  gravel  may 
be  used  in  the  same  proportion  as 
broken  stone.  The  cement,  sand  and 
stone  or  gravel  shall  be  measured  and 
mixed  as  is  prescribed  for  mortars.  All 
concrete  when  in  place  shall  be  properly 
rammed  and  allowed  to  set  without  be- 
ing disturbed. 


BRICKLAYING. 


MEASURES,  PROPORTIONS  AND  FIGURES. 

1  barrel  Portland  cement =4  bushels 
(nominally) . 

1  barrel  Portland  Cement  weighs  880 
Ibs.,  net. 

1  barrel  Portland  Cement  contains 
about  4  cubic  feet. 

i Thickness.—  , 

1  in.   %  in.    j^>  in. 
yards,  yards,  yards. 
1    bushel  Portland  Cement 

will  cover 11-7       1J^       2^ 

1   bushel  Portland    Cement 

and  1  of  sand  will  cover. .  .2J4          3  4«^ 

1    bushel  Portland    Cement 
and  2  of  sand  will  cover . .  .3%         4X        6% 

Concrete. 

1  barrel  Portland  Cement. 

2  barrels  clean  sharp  sand. 

6  barrels  broken  stone  or  hard-burnt 
brick  or  gravel  will  yield  about  20  cubic 
feet. 

Foot  Walks. 

For  bottom  coat  a  concrete  of : 

1  barrel  Portland  Cement. 

2  barrels  sand. 

5  barrels  broken  stone. 
For  surface: 

1  part  Portland  Cement. 
1  part  sand. 

Artificial  Stone  and  Blocks. 
1  barrel  Portland  Cement. 
6  barrels  clean  sharp  sand. 
Use  as  little  water  as  possible,  and 
ram  well  in  metal  moulds,  if  possible  to 
be  obtained . 

Masonry. 

For  average  masonry  of  rough  etone, 
contractors  estimate  about  one  barrel 
of  ordinary  hydraulic  cement  and  two 
barrels  sand  to  the  yard;  or  of  Portland 
cement  about  one  barrel  with  two  or 
three  parts  sand.  For  granite  and  cut- 
stone  work  the  amount  of  cement  is 
much  less,  depending  on  the  character 
of  the  stone. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

BRICKLAYING  AND  BONDING  WALLS  OF 
VARIOUS  THICKNESSES. 

TO   make  a  brick  wall  a  strong  co- 
hesive and  uniform  mass,   it  is 
necessary  that  some  system  be 
followed  in  placing  its  principal 
component  parts,   and  this  is  done    by 
following  the  system  termed    "Bond- 
ing. " 


The  word  ''bond"  in  its  application 
to  brickwork,  signifies  the  positions  in 
which  bricks  are  placed  in  juxtaposition 
with  intervening  layers  of  mortar,  to 
form,  when  the  mortar  has  "set"  or 
hardened  a  perfectly  solid  construction , 
and  the  manner  and  methods  of  doing 
this  constitutes  the  "art  of  bricklay- 
ing." 


As  there  are  essential  detailed  rules 
which  must  be  observed  to  get  a  good 
job  of  brickwork,  I  will  now  touch  on 
Some  of  them  in  the  form  of  axioms. 


FIG.  38. 

These  are  standard,  and  the  practical 
and  positive  results  of  the  best  experi- 
ence: 

"The  object  of  bonding  a  brick  wall 
is  to  distribute  the  weight  which  the 
wall  carries,  so  that  it  may  be  borne  by 
all  the  bricks  and  not  by  a  few." 

To  gain  this  end,  bricks  should  always 
break  joints  like  Fig.  38,  which  shows 
the  first  and  second  bottom  courses  or 
the  commencement  of  an  8  inch  or  4 
inch  brick  wall,  where  it  will  be  seen 
the  ends  of  the  bricks  do  not  hang  over 
each  other,  but  "break  joint,"  as  it  is 
technically  termed  by  bricklayers.  For 
this  requirement,  it  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  use  quarter  bricks,  half  bricks 
or  pieces  termed  "bats"  to  keep  the 
joints  well  broken,  which  will  be  under- 
stood as  the  different  bonds  are  explain- 
ed in  succession,  but  no  bond  should 
ever  be  less  than  two  inches. 

When  bricks  are  laid  parallel  to  the 
face  of  the  wall  or  longitudinally,  they 
are  termed  "  stretchers,"  when  laid  at 
right  angles  or  across  the  wall,  they  are 
called  "headers."  therefore,  all  brick 
walls  should  have  two  bonds,  which 
are  indispensable,  namely,  a  "stretch- 
er" bond  lengthwise  with  the  wall  and 
a  transverse  Header  bond,  extending 
across  or  through  the  wall. 

Every  wall  should  invariably  be  built 
"plumb,"  like  Fig.  39,  on  both  the  in- 


BRICKLAYING. 


side  and  outside  faces,  the  plumb  rule 
and  line  being  applied  both  on  the  in- 
side and  outside,  and  no  wall  should 
ever  be  laid  up  in  the  irregular  unwork- 


B  C 

FIG.  39. 


manlike  manners  represented  in  the 
three  sections,  B,  C  and  D,  shown  at 
Fig.  39.  All  walls  should  be  carried  up 
by  the  bricklayers  with  the  courses 


FIG.  40. 

level  and  straight  from  corner  to  corner 
by  working  to  a  line  and  occasionally 
leveling  the  courses,  especially  where 
window  sills  and  other  openings  occur. 
All  mortar  joints  should,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, be  kept  the  same  thickness,  and 
should  never  be  allowed  to  become  un- 
even or  "Hogged,"  which  happens 
when  laying  brick  overhand,  or  without 
a  line.  Should  the  joints  be  laid  too 
wide  or  vary  in  width,  they  are  liable 
to  compress  or  squeeze  together  under 
the  weight  placed  upon  them,  and 
cause  the  wall  to  settle,  buckle,  or 
fracture,  when  it  is  settling  to  its  natu- 
ral bearings. 

As  bricks  are  held  together  by  the  co- 
hesive action  of  the  mortar,  which  must 
cover  all  surfaces  to  obtain  the  most 
perfect  bond,  it  follows  that  each  brick 


should  be  well  rubbed  down  into  the 
mortar  when  it  is  laid.  Bricks,  if  too 
dry,  should  be  wet,  as  all  bricks  when 


III    1 

1    1     1     1     1     | 

!          1 

.1.1.1 

1          1 

1          1 

1         1          1 

1          1          I 

FIG.  41, 

dry,  even  in  cold  weather,  will  suck 
the  water  out  of  the  mortar  and  leava 
only  the  lime  and  sand,  which  will  set 
or  harden  without  absorption,  and  have 
no  bond.  When  the  atmosphere  i» 
humid  or  damp,  wetting  the  bricks  may 
1 


234567 
2 


9        1O 


1 

,          1            3           j         « 

5 

6 

7         j;          8                 9 

10 

2345 

6         j          7          j         8         J           9 

n                                          >> 

1 

3456 

2          ;l          ,          :          8.                9        j        ,0 

'     2                   34                    5 

6789 

r*                             .    .^ 

,           |          a 

3 

i  !  • 

6 

7 

8 

9                  10 

FIG.  42. 

be  dispensed  with,  but  they  should 
never  be  wet  in  freezing  weather  as  the 
water  forms  an  icy  film  on  the  surfaces 
of  each  brick. 


24 


BRICKLAYING. 


All  joints  around  window  or  door 
frames  and  all  interspaces  in  brick 
walls,  should  be  thoroughly  "slushed" 
up  with  mortar  and  filled  in  with  pieces 
of  brick  to  get  a  good,  solid  air  tight 
construction ;  and  if  a  wall  has  been 
uncovered  and  not  been  built  on  for 
some  time,  it  should  be  well  scraped  off 
and  swept  clean  to  remove  all  dirt  or 
other  foreign  substances  from  the  top 
surfaces  of  the  bricks.  To  prevent 
rain,  snow  or  any  injury  to  a  wall  in 
course  of  construction,  good  bricklayers 
cover  the  top  courses  of  their  walls  with 
boards  or  planks  to  preserve  them  over 
night,  and  if  they  are  to  remain  unbuilt 
on  for  a  long  time,  as  in  very  cold 
winter  weather,  they  carefully  cover 
them  with  tarpaulins,  canvas  or  tar 
paper,  and  weight  these  down  with 
planks  on  top,  thus  protecting  the  wall 
from  injury. 

All  brickwork  into  which  frost  has 
entered  should  never  be  built  upon, 
but  be  pulled  down  and  rebuilt. 

Frozen  walls  are  liable  to  slide  or 
buckle. 

In  order  to  get  the  best  results  when 
rough  or  common  brick  walls  are  being 
laid,  the  following  simple  details  should 
also  be  observed  and  followed; 

Each  brick  should  be  laid  with  a 
shoved  joint,  in  a  full  bed  of  mortar, 
all  intersections  being  thoroughly  filled 
and  where  the  brijks  come  in  connec- 
tion with  anchors,  each  one  shall  be 
brought  home  and  close  to  same,  so  as 
to  do  all  the  holding  work  possible. 

All  mortar  joints,  where  the  wall  is 
not  to  be  plastered,  should  be  neatly 
struck  with  the  trowel,  and  all  courses 
kept  level  and  the  bonds  preserved . 

Where  necessary  to  bring  any  course 
up  to  the  required  height  "  clip '' 


.1,1        II         1 

i 

1      1      1     1      1  J 

1         1        1 

III      1       1 

N  i  i  i  i  i  i  i  r 

Fia.  43. 

courses  should  be  formed,  and  in  no 
case  should  any  mortar  joint  finish 
more  than  half  an  inch  thick. 

All  bricks  should  be  laid  to  lines,  and 
all  wall  spaces,  angles,  chases  and  inter- 
sections, otc,,  built  plumb  true  and 
square;  also  all  walls  must  be  leveled  to 
receive  girders  and  floor  beams,  where 
they  occur. 

The  usual  average  size  of  common  or 
rough  brick  is  8  inches  long,  3j£  inches 
wide  and  2  to  2^  inches  thick.  These 


should  be  of  good  porous  clay  and  be 
perfectly  true  and  out  of  wind,  or  free 
from  twists  on  all  surfaces,  rectangular 
in  shape  and  uniform  in  texture.  They 
should  also  be  free  from  holes  or  lumps 


1 

3 

4 

5 

2 

| 

6 

7 

8 

9 

1O 

11 

1 

= 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

2 

9 

10 

11 

FIG.  44. 

of  stone,  and  be  "  well  burnt"  —  which 
means  they  should  not  be  black  or  over- 
burnt,  but  solid  and  like  a  sponge,  and 
contain  sufficient  capillary  attraction 
to  absorb,  when  immersed  not  over  X 
their  weight  of  water.  A  good  brick 
dry  weighs  from  3^  to  3%  pounds;  wet 


BRICKLAYING. 


25 


for  laying  from  4  to  4j^.  Four  pounds 
is  about  the  average  weight  in  a  pile 
sprinkled  ready  for  laying.  All 
"Lammies",  bloated,  misshaped,  pale, 
soft  and  crumbled  brick  are  unfit  for 
use,  and  are  only  a  detriment  to  a  piece 
of  brickwork. 

Bricks  can  be  tested  by  striking  two 
together  face  to  face,  or  when  being 
dumped  from  the  truck.  If  good,  they 
will  give  out  a  sharp,  clear  sound. 


1    1  , 

III/ 

1    .    1 

I.I        1    . 

1 

I        1        1       1 

1     I    1 

1 

1         1         1         1 

1        1 

1       1        1 

1  1 

1  1  1  1   1  1   1 

1      1 

1     1     1 

1     1     1 

: 

1            1            I 

brick,  breaking  joint  every  4  inches. 
This  thickness  of  brickwork  is  rarely  or 
ever  used  for  bearing  purposes,  but  is 
adapted  for  "lining"  stone  or  brick 
walls,  and  as  it  is  then  liable  to  buckle, 
if  built  too  high,  it  should  be  keyed  or 
anchored  to  the  solid  wall,  which  oper- 
ation will  be  explained  later.  "  Head- 
ing "  courses  are  usually  laid,  every 
sixth  course  in  walls  of  8  inches  in 
thickness  or  more,  which  are  termed 


ORDINARY  BOND  2O  INCH  BOND 

FIG.  45. 


BONDING  BRICK  WALLS. 

In  bricklaying  there  are  several 
<bonds  used  in  constructing:  rough  or 
bearing  walls,  the  "English"  and 
"  Flemish  "  being  most  popular,  especi- 
ally the  former,  which  is  almost  the 
universal  form  followed. 

Fig.  40  shows  the  elevation  and  end 
of  a  brick  wall,  one  brick  or  3^  inches 
thick,  with  a  regular  4-inch  or  half 
torick  bond  of  "stretchers,"  or  whole 


"bond"  courses.  At  Fig.  41,  I  illus- 
trate the  side  and  end  views  of  an  8- 
inch  brick  wall,  showing  how  the  wall 
is  "  bonded"  by  tying  it  together  with 
a  course  of  "headers"  laid  every  sixth 
course.  The  wall  is  commenced  with 
a  course  of  headers  and  carried  up  thus, 
making  a  strong  -construction,  each 
course  being  laid  by  the  bricklayer,  as 
shown  at  Fig.  42,  one  after  the  other  as 
numbered.  B  represents  the  place 


BRICKLAYING. 


where  the  bricklayer  stands,  and  the 
dotted  line  shows  how  he  works  from 
left  to  right  in  laying  his  brick. 

A  12  inch  brick  wall  with  the  bricks 
laid  in  proper  bond  is  shown  in  eleva- 
tion and  section  at  Fig.  43,  where  it 
will  be  noticed  the  "heading  course" 
are  laid  every  sixth  course,  as  in  the  8- 
inch  wall,  with  the  difference  that  it  is 
carried  up  on  both  sides  of  the  wall. 

Fig  44  will  give  a  full  explanation  of 
the  bonding  courses  as  each  is  laid,  the 
letter  B  representing,  as  before,  the 
working  position  of  the  bricklayer,  and 
Fig.  45  will  explain  the  full  operation 
of  bricklaying  used  in  the  construction 
of  a  16-inch  wall.  Here  the  elevation 
section  and  twelve  courses  are  given, 


1            1 

i        i 

1            1 

i        i 

1            1 

i        i 

1            1 

i        i 

i  I         i 

i        i 

i     i    i    i 

i    i    i    i 

S        I 

l        i 

J L 


FIG.  46.— ELEVATION  AND  SECTION 
OF  20 -IN.  WALL. 

the  six  on  the  left  representing  the 
ordinary  bond  and  those  on  the  right 
the  20-inch  bond,  which  is  sometimes 
used  in  good  work. 

Fig.  46  of  the  illustrations  gives  the 
elevation  and  section  of  a  wall,  two 
brick  and  a  half,  or  20  inches  thick, 
which,  with  one  inch  of  mortar  added 
on,  i  or  approximately  half  an  inch  for 
each  joint,  would  make  the  wall  actu- 
ally 21  inches  thick.  These  two 
sketches  give  the  heading  and  stretcher 
courses  in  the  wafl.  showing  their  ap- 
pearance when  laid,  and  the  six  courses 
seen  in  Fig.  47  show  the  bricks  as  they 
are  laid  from  the  bottom  up,  course  by 


course,  using  brick  "bats/  or  quarter 
and  half  sized  pieces  or  half  brick  and 
three  quarter  brick  in  starting  the  first 


1 

1     1    1     f 

8       1       1       1       I 

3111 

[III 

- 

1              1             1 

I 

1             1             1             1 

II      1       If 

i 

i 

h 

1 

l    l 

FIG.  47.— Six  COURSES; 
20  IN    STRAIGHT  WALL. 


1 

1 

I         I         1 

1 

1 

1         (         I 

1        I 

1       i       1 

1    I     1 

1     t    1     1     f 

1         [ 

1         1 

of.   W/?LL 


I 

1 

Jl     I     1     1 

J 

1 

1     1     I 

l_ 

,    1, 

1     1 

u 

1    1         I 

I    1     1     1 

I     1     1     1 

1     1    1     1 

(III 

d    1    1    i 

1    1    1    1 

1    1    I    1 

1     1     1     1 

l      l      IT 

1     1     1     1     1 

Jill. 

1114 

i 

i 

TV 

UL 

6*- 

FIG.  48 A.— 24-iN.  ORDINARY  BOND. 

course  and  on  the  third  course  in  order 
to  give  a  two-inch  bond  and  break 
joint. 


BRICKLAYING. 


27 


The  plans  of  six  courses  and  face  view 
of  the  24-inch  wall,  represented  at  Fig. 
48A,  will  convey  to  the  reader  how 
"bricklaying"  entails  more  work  and 
becomes  more  difficult  as  walls,  piers, 
etc.,  increase  in  thickness  in  order  to 
obtain  thorough  "bonding."  This  is 
done  by  laying  the  bricks  in  the  posi- 
tions delineated  in  the  six  courses 
where  "closers"  or  "bats"  and  half 
brick  are  again  used  to  distribute  the 
joints  and  obtain  fulJ  bonds  in  headers 
and  stretchers. 

A  close  study  of  the  bonding  dia- 
grams is  the  best  way  to  get  a  proper 
knowledge  of  the  exact  positions  of  the 
bricks,  afterwards  watching  the  work 
when  in  course  of  construction  to  verify 

Fig.  48B  is  a  second  system  of  bond- 
ing used  in  some  24-inch  walls. 


CHAPTER  V. 

BUILDING  BRIOK  ANGLES,  CORNERS 
AND  INTERSECTING  WALLS. 


THE  foregoing  diagrams  complete 
the  bonds  used  in  straight  walls 
from  8  to  24  inches  thick,  so  the 
methods  of  anchoring  and  bonding  fol- 
lowed by  bricklayers  to  form  angles 
will  now  be  described,  commencing 
with  the  important  means  which  they 
adopt  to  tie  walls  together  at  right 
angled  corners  when  one  wall  or  section 
of  a  wall  is  built  before  another,  as.  for 
example,  when  the  side,  rear  or  party 
walls  are  laid  up  in  advance  of  front 
walls.  This  sometimes  occurs  when  the 
stonework  or  front  brick  are  delayed; 
on  circular  corners,  or  when  for  any 
reason  it  is  required  to  carry  one  wail 
up  before  that  to  be  built  to  it,  and 
when  it  is  not  possible  to  properly  bond 
it  course  by  course.  In  this  emergency 
bricklayers  apply  the  method  termed 
'^blocking"  and  "heading"  which 
gives  an  excellent  tie  if  wrought  iron 
T-anchors  be  introduced  and  built  into 
the  ends. 

At  Fig.  49  the  actual  construction  of 
the  end  of  an  eight  inch  cellar  brick 
partition  or  party  wall  is  represented 
as  having  been  built  to  hold  a  front  or 
rear  wall  which  crosses  it  at  right 
angles.  By  observing  the  engraving 
closely  the  four-inch  "blocking" 


carried  across  the  full  thicknessx>f  the 
wall  every  six  courses  will  be  clearly 
seen ;  also  how  the  T  anchors,  which 
should  be  inserted  about  every  thirteen 
courses,  are  built  in  the  joints  and  al- 
lowed to  project  to  give  not  less  than 
eight  inches  of  "holding"  on  the  wall 
to  be  tied  to  the  eight-inch  wall.  These 
anchors  are  indispensable  and  should 
never  be  omitted  when  one  wall  is 
carried  up  before  that  to  be  built  to  it. 
Fig.  50  shows  how  they  are  made  of  y* 
or  Yz  x  2  wrought  iron,  and  average 


I 

1  1  1   1  1  1 

1 

5n 

'  1  '  1  '  1  ' 

:H 

1        I        1 

i 

!           1           1 

i  . 

1  1      1      1      1     LJ__ 

1          i         1         I 

1          1          1 

Mill 

1                             1 

1       1.      1 

Jfc 


I    I.I 


—  • 

1 

"  -  1 

F 

5 

— 

i 

] L 


FIG.  48B.— 24-iN.  WALL,  A  2v  BOND. 

from  16  to  36  inches  in  length.  The 
reader  will  appreciate  the  application 
of  this  method  of  bonding  and  tying 
angles  together  with  blocking  and 
anchors  by  the  perspective  view  of  an 
eight-inch  brick  gable,  Fig.  51,  where 
a  close  straight  vertical  heading  joint  is 
necessary.  Here  the  blocking  of  four 
inches  occurs  every  alternate  six 
courses,  and  the  anchors  are  projected 
out  to  reach  over  eight  inches  in  the 
front  wall  and  give  a  strong  holding. 
Fig.  52  will  illustrate  the  end  construe- 


BRICKLAYING. 


tion  of  a  12-in.  brick  wall  built  to  sus- 
tain a  front  or  rear  wall,  and  Fig.  53  is 
an  inside  intermediate  or  party  wall 
built  for  the  same  purpose.  Similarly 
with  Figs.  53  and  54  which  are  brick 
walls  16  inches  thick. 

In  connection  with  these  methods  it 
might  be  stated  here  that  the  gable  end 
blockings  are  reversed  on  the  right  or 
left  hand  ends,  as  they  occur,  to  leave 
a  straight,  smooth  wall  on  the  outside, 
which  will  be  understood  from  the  fore- 
going engravings,  as  they  are  all  drawn 


FIG.  49.—  S-IN.  INSIDE  WALL,  SHOWING 
HEADING  FOR  TYING  INTO  WALL  AT 

RIGHT  ANGLES. 

from  work  during  actual  construction 
and  are  therefore  accurate.  However, 
many  of  the  best  bricklayers  vary  their 
work  to  suit  the  details  and  obtain  the 
best  results,  so  it  is  wisest  to  observe  all 
the  brickwork  one  can  during  its  erec- 
tion and  note  the  different  methods 
applied. 

Bonding  Angles  and  Intersecting  Walls. 
Fig.  55  shows  six  courses  of  bricks 
laid  in  the  positions  necessary  to  obtain 
the  proper  bonding  and  tying  of  a  right 
angled  corner  or  "lead"  for  an  8  inch 
wall.  Here  the  bonds  are  given  for  a 


left  hand  corner,  but  the  same  construc- 
tion prevails  for  a  right  hand  corner, 
and  the  reader  will  readily  perceive 
its  application  by  turning  the  book 
upside  down.  Because  corners  and 
angles  constitute  the  main  strength  of 
every  brick  building  they  are  invariably 
built  with  great  care  by  the  best  brick- 
layers, who  carry  up  six  or  more  courses 
in  height  and  "  Rack  out,"  like  Fig.  56, 
for  the  straight  wall.  They  also  use 
great  care  in  gauging  the  thickness  of 
the  mortar  joints  and  keeping  the  apex 


FIG.  50. — IRON  TIE  END. 
FIG.  52. — FRONT  END  OF  1?  IN.  GABLE, 
OR  SIDE  WALL  SHOWING  HEADS  FOR 
TYING  IN  FRONTS. 

of  each  of  the  angles  on  the  faces  of  the 
walls  exactly  plumb  by  a  frequent  ap- 
plication of  the  "Plumb  Rule,"  Fig. 
19.  In  fact  corners  and  angles  are  the 
most  important  parts  of  walls,  as  from 
them  lines  are  stretched  to  guide  the 
courses  straight  and  level,  and  conse- 
quently ensure  a  plumb  and  level  con- 
struction. The  diagrams  of  six  courses, 
each  represented  in  Figs.  57,  58,  59  and 
60,  give  the  construction  of  brick  walls, 
12,  16,  20  and  24  inches  in  thickness, 
and  being  self  explanatory  require  no 
further  description. 

Concerning  the  methods  of  bonding; 
"Party"  or  intermediate  walls  occur- 
ring either  transversely  or  longitudin- 


FIG.  51.— 8  IN.  GABLE  OR  SIDE  WALL, 

SHOWING  BLOCKING  HEADS  AND 

ANCHORS. 


BRICKLAYING. 


ally,  and  cutting  into  front,  rear  or  aide 
walls  the  reader  will  see  the  bricklay- 
ing of  these  courses  fully  illustrated  by 
the  diagrams  Figs.  61,  62,  63,  64  and  65, 
which  show  how  the  joints  are  scattered, 


and  explain  here  the  application  of  the 
"  Story  Rod."  An  important  essential 
to  every  bricklaying  foreman  engaged 
in  building  construction. 

This   "Rod"  is  simply  a  good  stiff 


j i I 


i.i.i 


FIG.  55. — 8-iN.  CORNER. 


FIG.  56. 


or  "staggered,"  and  the  two  walls 
thoroughly  tied  together  course  by 
course. 

While  commenting  on  the  subject  of 
corners  and  angles,  from  which  the 
measurements  of  all  walls  are  regulated 
and  built,  it  is  advisable  to  introduce 


strip  of  wood  made  of  a  spruce  IX''  x 
2"  furring  strip  or  2"  x  2'  stud,  spaced 
out  by  thicknesses  of  brick  and  mortar 
joints  to  the  height  of  each  story.  For 
example,  if  the  first  story  be  10'-6"  in 
the  clear,  finished,  that  is  with  the 
floors  laid,  and  the  plaster  on  the  ceil- 


BRICKLAYING, 


31 


ings,  then  the  rod  must  be  the  full 
length  in  the  clear  of  the  floor  beams, 
or  fiom  the  top  edges  of  the  first  story 
beams  to  the  bottom  edges  of  theseoond 
story  beams  above  and  be  spaced  out  in 
the  following  manner:  First,  the  rod  is 
measured  off  and  cut  the  exact  height 
of  the  story,  namely  10"-8",  and  then 
divided  up  for  the  courses,  by  finding 
the  number  required  to  be  laid  to  reach 
this  height.  This  can  be  done  in  several 
very  simple  ways:  First,  by  taking  2^ 
inches  for  each  course  and  dividing  the 
height  in  inches  by  2^  inches  thus :  128 


© 


ill 


\ \f 


I  .  I. 


J L 


J L 


FIG.  57.— 12-iN.  R.  A.  CORNER. 


inches  in  thickness,  but  they  are  some- 
times built  thicker  in  engineering  and 
building  constructions,  increasing  by  4 
inch  or  8  inch  thicknesses  to  the  great- 
est desired.  In  building  these  walls  the 
usual  practice  is  to  reproduce  and  dupli- 
cate the  bondings  shown  in  the  preced- 
ing engravings,  to  suit  the  increased 
thickness,  and  by  grouting  in  the 
courses  to  fill  all  possible  voids,  thus 
making  a  solid  mass,  if  the  grouting 
hardens  in  the  interior  of  the  wall. 
This  is  doubtful,  especially  when  the 


J [ 


n — r 


FIG.  58.— 16-iN.  R.  A.  CORNER. 


inches  divided  by  2^=51 -No.  of 
courses  required:  or,  again  assume  5 
courses  to  build  12}4  inches  in  height. 
Then  10'— 8"  x  12" =128  inches.  For  51 
brick  courses  2"  thick  allow  102  inches. 
For  51  y2  mortar  joints  allow  25  X  inches, 
which  will  make  127^  inches,  and  allow 
Yz  inch  for  leveling  up  the  beams. 

The  foregoing  diagrams  and  engrav- 
ings with  their  descriptions  embrace 
brick  walls  increasing  from  4  to  24 


grout  is  made  of  Rosendale  Cement, 
unless  it  is  made  up  with  a  large  pro- 
portion of  cement  thoroughly  tempered 
and  not  too  liquid,  as  borings  and  in- 
cisions made  in  very  thick  walls  have 
revealed  that  in  the  interior  the  cement 
had  not  set  after  being  built  for  months. 
The  cement  being  inside  is  entirely  pro- 
tected from  the  direct  hardening  action 
of  the  atmosphere  and  consequently  it 
sets  very  slowly. 


BRICKLAYING. 


Acute  Angle  Corners  and  Intersecting 
Walls. 

We  will  now  take  up  those  walls,  the 
plan  of  which  is  an  acute  or  obtuse 
angle,  and  will  commence  with  Fig.  66 
which  is  the  plan  of  one  course  of  an 
acute  angled  corner.  This  sometimes 
occurs  on  the  general  house  plan,  on  an 
inside  lot,  or  Gore,  as  it  is  termed,  by- 
real  estate  men  in  many  localities.  In 
this  engraving  the  wall  is  represented 


work,  but  is  not  good  bricklaying  as  the 
"pigeon  holes"  form  receptacles  for  ac- 
cumulation of  water,  snow,  ice  and  fre- 
quently nests  of  birds,  and  the  result  is 
that  the  brickwork  rapidly  deteriorates. 
When  possible,  therefore,  it  is  better  to 
obtain  molded  brick  for  these  angles. 
It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
the  above  description  refers  only  to 
ordinary  rough  brickwork,  and  not  to 
front  work,  where  pigeon  holes  are 
rarely  introduced,  as  their  artistic 


J L 


r  "i 

- 

i    i> 

— 

— 

1 

i=rl 


J I 


1    1    1 

1    1 

1     1     1 

1    1 

-Be 

J [ 


J UJ 


FIG.  59.—  20-iN.  R.  A.  CORNER. 


J I 


1     1 

- 

, 

— 

1     1 

I 

- 

« 

0 

FIG.  60.—  24 -IN  R.  A.  CORNER— 6  COURSES. 


as  built  out  almost  to  a  point,  or  the  ex- 
treme apex  of  the  angle;  and  is  "pigeon 
holed"  or  laid  up  with  vacant  spaces  on 
the  right  and  left  faces  of  each  eleva- 
tion. These  "pigeon  holes"  are  un- 
avoidably made  necessary  by  laying  the 
bricks  with  square  ends,  which  is  done 
to  economize  time  and  labor,  instead  of 
using  bricks  with  ends  molded  to  the 
angle,  or  cutting  the  bricks  to  the  bevel 
necessary  to  fit.  The  foregoing  method 
is  often  followed  in  the  cheaper  class  of 


effect  is  very  doubtful,  and  not  popular 
with  architects.  Fig.  67  will  illustrate 
the  construction  of  this  form  of  corner 
when  built  with  an  8  or  12-inch  flat  end. 
It  is  just  as  strong,  saves  brick,  and 
lessens  the  number  of  pigeon  holes,  so 
that  it  is  a  good  form  to  follow  on  an 
inside  angle.  In  this  diagram  the  head- 
ing courses  are  shown  in  a  12-inch  wall 
as  in  the  one  preceding. 

Fig.  68,   X  and  Y,  show  the  ordinary 
obtuse  angled  brick  corner  which  is 


BRICKLAYING. 


33 


much  used  in  the  construction  of 
modern  city  tenements,  dwellings  and 
other  buildings  where  a  legally  fixed 
percentage  of  light  and  air  is  required 
to  all  the  rooms,  especially,  on  inside 
lots,  where,  in  tenements,  this  plan  has 
been  found  to  give  the  best  results  in 
obtaining  light  and  air  and  economizing 
space.  The  plans  of  the  courses  and 
elevation  in  these  engravings  show  the 
usual  obtuse  angled  corner  of  22}4  de- 
grees, and  give  the  bricklaying  for 
same,  which,  with  the  bonds  illustrated 
in  Fig.  59,  will  give  the  entire  construc- 
tion', as  here  the  bricks  are  cut  to  a 


tain  great  strength  and  form  the  main- 
stay of  the  straight  walls  to  be  built  to 
them,  they  should  always  be  laid  up 
and  bonded,  course  by  course,  and  pro- 
perly racked  out  for  each  straight  wall. 

The  practice  of  carrying  up  one 
straight  wall  before  another  which 
abuts  against  it  at  right  angles  is  a 
deleterious  one  and  should  never  be 
permitted,  because  two  walls  built 
separately  are  much  weaker  than  when 
tied  together  at  every  course,  ar  d  they 
will  never  settle  equally  as  the  one  first 
built  will  come  to  its  permanent  bear- 


I     .1     .1.  .1. 


I.     I.     I.     I,     I.    I. 


FIG.  61.— BONDING  OF  Two  S-IN.  WALLS. 

close  joint  on  the  corner.  A-B  denotes 
the  recurring  and  alternating  on  each 
course  of  the  pigeon  holes. 

Concerning  the  bricklaying  usually 
followed  when  building  intersecting 
walls  of  various  thicknesses,  very  little 
written  description  is  required,  as  the 
bonds  resemble  very  much  those  of  the 
right  angled  corners,  described  in  the 
straight  wall  description  and  the  work 
will  be  fully  understood  by  close  and 
careful  study.  Fig.  70,  71,  72,  73,  74 
give  the  bonding  of  8  inch,  12-inch, 
16  inch,  20-inch  and  24  inch  walls, 
which  cross  and  intersect  each  other, 
so  as  to  form  four  right  angles.  As 
these  important  walls  when  built  oon- 


FIG.  62.— 12-iN.  WALLS. 

ings  before  that  built  later;  and  the 
result  is  a  permanent  strain  at  the  joint. 
To  save  time  many  good  bricklayers  re- 
sort to  forming  4  or  8  inch  pockets  in 
the  face  of  the  straight  wall  and  build 
in  them  heavy  T-anchors  thus  giving  an 
opportunity  to  lay  up  the  straight  wall 
more  rapidly  and  economically  from  a 
line,  than  if  carried  up  and  bonded  by 
courses. 

The  question  of  economizing  time  and 
working  to  advantage  is  a  serious 
matter  with  contracting  bricklayers,  as 
many  details  have  to  be  considered  ; 
notably,  those  of  changing  and  moving 
scaffolding  and  preparing,  conveying, 
and  accumulating  tools  and  material  on 


BRICKLAYING. 


I   .    I 


I    .  I 


® 


I    I  . 


t 


I       I 


II       I 


I,     I.     I 


© 


I       '       '       ' 


. 

1   J 


II        I 


© 


FIG.  63—16  IN.  WALLS. 


FIG.  64. 


I I      .    rL.      I  I  I  I  I  1111.1.1 

~ 


FIG.  65. 


BRICKLAYING. 


35 


FIG.  63.— A12-IN.  ACUTE  ANGLED  CORNER. 


FIG.  67.— HEADING  COURSE  12-iN.  WALL, 
ACUTE  ANGLED  CORNER. 


FIG.  68-  Y. — OBTUSE  OR  OBLIQUE  BRICK  ANGLE, 
OUTSIDE  CORNER  WITH  PIGEON-HOLE. 


BRICKLAYING. 


the  scaffolds  when  ready  to  be  worked 
on.  For  this  reason  foremen  adopt  and 
follow  methods  which  will  avoid  as 


1       1       1       R§ 

1           1           1           1 

1        1        1        1 

^i           i           i          1           | 

1.1     1   >  1   J 

—  1           1           1           K 

g^           i           i          i           i 

—  i  —  —  i  —  '  —  H  —  r—  ! 

1          \          \           1 

^         i        i        i  1 

S-A 
FIG.  68-X. 

much  as  possible  shifting  scaffolds,  and 
construct  their  walls,  so  their  men  will 
be  kept  continuously  at  work,  by  sub- 
stituting for  one  method,  another, 
which,  though  not  as  reliable,  is  still 


FIG.  70.— 8-iN.  INTERSECTING  "VVAL.LS. 

sufficiently  good  to  be  safe  building. 
The  introduction  of  "  Pockets,"  "Block- 
ing," and  anchors  in  laying  up  cross- 
walls  and  intersecting  walls  instead  of 
laying  by  courses  may  be  cited  as  an 
example  of  varying  construction  which 
is  of  common  occurrence  in  ordinary 
houses,  and  though  not  defective,  it  is 
nevertheless  not  good  brickwork.  The 


voids  formed  by  pockets,  which  are 
usually  left  every  alternate  6  courses  in 
height,  weaken  a  straight  wall,  and  it 


LU 


1 

* 

FIG.  69.— INSIDE  AND  OUTSIDE  OBLIQUE 
OBTUSE  BRICK  CORNERS. 


remains  weak  until  the  projected  block- 
ing on  the  one  occurring  at  right  angles 
is  built  to  it.  Many  bricklayers  project 


FIG.  71. 

a  blocking  4  inches  from  the  surfaces  of 
the  straight  walls  to  fit  into  the  ends  of 
these  abutting,  in  order  to  obviate  this 


BRICKL  VYING. 


37 


1,1,1 


.1.1 


J L 


J L 


.LJ 


J I 


- 

— 

— 

— 

1  ..  1 

1 

J 

i     i 

1 

1 

1, 

i     i     i 

h 

H  II 

1    1 

1 

— 

^  — 

i     i 

(5) 

— 

,j_ 

— 

J L 


I      I  __L 


L_L 


FIG.  78. 


BRICKLAYING. 


— 

T3» 

bn 

-1 

) 

I 

— 

i    i 

f    i 

j 

LJ 

\ 

I 

— 

i    t 

3 

\                     \ 

® 

<=Sa 

( 

5) 

— 

1  1 

FIG.  74. 


BRICKLAYING. 


39 


FIG.  72.   (See 


FIG.  75. 


!---r-J- 


r», 

Sy/j/y.       «^-*j               |               |               |f4-" 

; 

1               1               1               1 

JDe 

i 

,        1               1               1               1               1 

"I 

1          ! 

•«l               1               1               1               1 

1 

I 

1               1               1               II               1 

1            le 

/»o 


_L_J L 


J L 


JLL 


FIG.  75  A. 


40 


BRICKLAYING. 


weakness,  but  it  is  never  satisfactory  in 
a  constructive  sense,  so  t-iat  in  good 
work  every  course  for  all  four  angles 
should  be  fully  bonded  and  racked  out 
for  the  straight  walls  as  they  occur  on 
the  plans. 

Fig.  75  represents  an  8  by  12  inch 
recess  pocket  or  chase,  for  obtaining  a 
tie  by  blocking  out  from  another  wall 
which  is  to  be  built  afterwards.  These 
are  formed  of  different  regular  sizes, 
according  to  the  widths,  lengths  and 
thicknesses  of  the  bricks,  and  according 
to  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  have 
the  anchors  built  in  as  represented  in 
the  engraving.  They  occur  about  every 
six  courses  in  height,  but  are  only  an 
expedient  to  avoid  laying  course  by 
course. 

Fig.  75  A.  shows  the  application  of  the 
'•DEAD  MAN"  or  temporary  pier  built 
by  bricklayers  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
ing up  the  lines  necessary  when  laying 


climates,  because  the  sun's  rays  acting 
daily  and  continuously  on  one  or  two 
sides,  keeping  them  warm,  and  the 
opposite  sides  being  cold,  the  masonry 
will  bend  towards  the  heat,  so  that  the 
mortar  should  have  great  cohesive 
power. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

LAYING  BRICK  IN  FLEMISH,  "  RUNNING," 
AND  "HERRING  BONE  "  BONDS. 

"FRONTWORK.  " 

FLEMISH  BOND. 

CONSIDERING  now  the  laying  of 
brick  in  Flemish  bond,  which  dif- 
fersfrom  English  bond,  previously 
described,  in   being  less  valuable 
in  its  constructive  features  and  conse- 
quently much  less  applied  and  followed 


I     !       'I 


FIG.  77. 


up  a  brick  gable  or  any  wall  which 
steps  or  reaches  back;  the  object  of  the 
"DEAD  MAN"  being  to  regulate  the 
proper  heights  and  levels  of  the  courses. 
The  application  of  this  expedient  is  fully 
illustrated  in  the  engraving. 

Brick  chimneys  and    parapet    walls 

above  the  roof  line  should  invariably  be 

(aid  up  in  cement,  especially  in  extreme 


by  architects  and  builders,  we  will  com- 
mence by  illustrating  an  8-inch  brick 
wall  built  in  this  bond. 

Fig.  76  B  shows  one  course  with  two 
elevations,  A  and  C.  It  will  be  seen 
here  that  the  bricks  are  laid  "headers " 
and  "stretchers  "  one  after  the  other  for 
the  full  length  of  the  course.  The  sec- 
ond course,  as  at  A,  is  laid  entirely  a 


BRICKLAYING. 


41 


"  stretcher  "  course  so  that  the  wall  hav- 
ing too  many  longitudinal  and  trans- 
verse joints,  is  too  expensive  for  a  bear- 
ing wall.  For  ornamental  purposes,  as 
a  fence  wall,  garden  wall,  or  where  ex- 
pense is  not  considered,  this  form  might 
be  followed.  The  elevation  C  makes  a 
handsome  wall,  but  for  structural  pur- 
poses it  also  is  valueless  and  expensive 
a  ad  consequently  seldom  employed  in 
building  construction. 


FIG.  78. 

The  12-inch  wall  laid  in  this  bond, 
which  is  explained  by  the  two  courses 
and  the  elevation  and  projection  of  cor- 
rect and  incorrect  bonds,  Figs.  77  and 
78,  have  the  same  fault — namely,  too 
many  longitudinal  joints  or  too  few 
headers,  in  proportion  to  the  material 
and  labor  expended. 


FIG.  79. 

Fig.  79  represents  the  construction  of 
the  corner  of  a  12-inch  wall  laid  up  in 
double  Flemish  bond,  showing  the  head- 
ers and  stretchers  on  both  faces  of  the 
wall,  which  makes  it  adaptable  for  work 
which  is  to  remain  uncovered,  for  face 
work,  ornamental  work,  or  any  descrip- 
tion of  brick  work  where  expense  of 
time  or  workmanship  are  not  consid- 
ered. It  is  usual  in  thick  constructive 


work  of  this  kind  to  back  up  with  Eng- 
lish bond,  in  which  case  the  headers 
should  be  broken  every  alternate  course. 
Fig.  80  gives  two  more  courses  of  this 


UL 


Hfi 


f,r  Course. 


/- 

/   /        / 

/ 

/  / 

// 

z 

i 

i    /       / 

/ 

/  / 

1  1 

\ 

1  1 

r 

\ 

a 

Hh 

B 

I     ri     ri 


FIG.  80. 

bond  and  illustrates  how  half  bricks  are 
inserted  for  dummy  headers,  which 
necessarily  involves  an  expenditure  of 
much  time  and  labor  in  getting  Bats  to 


FIG.  81. 

suit,  compels  more  longitudinal  joints 
and  consequently  makes  a  weaker  wall. 
A.  comparison  of  this  engraving  and 
Fig.  79  will  show  the  superiority  of  the 
former,  which  is  the  best  to  follow 
should  Flemish  bond  be  specified  or  de- 
sired, as  it  gives  a  fuller  bond,  saves 
cutting,  and  makes  a  stronger  wall. 

The  application  of  Flemish  bond  to 
16-inch  walls  will  be  comprehended  by 
referring  to  Fig.  81,  the  plan  of  one 
course,  as  laid.  This,  too,  is  open  to 
serious  criticism  on  account  of  the  lack 
of  absolute  bond  and  Ion  gitudinal  joints, 
so  it  is  rarely  specified  by  architects  or 
carried  out  by  mason  builders.  The 
writer  has  seen  some  samples  of  Flem- 
ish bond  introduced  in  front  work, 
where  rock-faced  bricks  of  standard 


FIG.  82. 


42 


BRICKLAYING. 


sizes  were  laid  up  in  Flemish  bond  and 
backed  up  with  rough  bricks  of  the 
same  size.  This  job  was  very  effective 
in  fronts  of  Colonial  design,  but  the 


bricks  laid  diagonally  back  of  the 
ch;ped  course  are  laid  thus  to  obtain  a 
diagonal  or  mitre  bond,  by  the  pressure 
downward  of  the  next  course  which 
will  be  laid.  This  will  be  understood 
by  referring  to  the  dotted  lines  on  the 
engraving,  as  they  denote  the  joint  lines 
of  the  next  course  recurring.  The 
above  method  is  applicable  to  both  Ro- 


FIG.  83. 

walls  were  non-bearing  and  well  an- 
chored back  to  the  floor  beams.  All 
bonds  in  walls  and  piers  laid  up  in 
Flemish  bond  should  be  thoroughly 
bonded  in  every  course. 


RUNNING  BOND. 

As  we  will  presume  the  reader  is  now 
familiar  with  ^he  construction  of  the 
bonds  followed  in  rough  work,  we  will 
now  take  up  the  subject  of  front  brick 
work,  where  bricks  of  superior  finish, 
quality  and  size  are  introduced  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  an  architectural 
or  artistic  effect.  For  example,  in  the 
ou-side  surface  or  surfaces  of  walls 
forming  the  elevations  or  for  inside  and 
outside  court,  light  shaft,  kitchen,  or 
other  walls.  In  this  work  the  bricks  are 
laid  entirely  on  stretcher  courses,  or 
what  is  termed  "Running  Bond,'  to 
get  the  best  surface. 

The  construction  of  hisbond  is  com  - 
paratively  simple,  as  five  of  the  stretcher 
courses  are  usually  laid  as  in  English 
bond,  with  the  sixth  course  "clipped" 
or  the  corners  of  the  bricks  cut  off  with 
a  trowel  or  hammer  and  chisel  in  the 
way  seen  at  Fig.  82,  which  is  the  view 
of  a  course  of  "Clips,"  as  they  are 
called,  laid  in  a  12-inch  wall.  The 


man  brick  of  standard  size  or  those  of  the 
same  size  as  common  brick,  which  space 
out  to  suit  the  clips.  The  difference 
is  that  the  Roman  brick  must  be  spaced 
out  to  suit  the  rough  brick  backing.  If 
the  wall  is  a  bearing  wall  greater  care 
is  required  in  its  construction .  Fig.  83 
is  the  perspective  of  a  brick  corner  with 
Terra  Cotla  Quoins  laid  with  running 
bond. 

The  use  of  clip  courses  has,  however, 
now  been  ebviated  and  partially  super- 
seded by  the  placing  on  the  market  of 
the  square  bricks  suitable  for  bonding 
Flemish  or  running  bond.  Fig.  84, 
where  this  brick,  popularly  called  Amer- 
ican, or  Chicago  bond,  is  shown,  as  laid 
in  the  course.  These  brick  give  a  splen- 
did tie  back  into  the  rough  brick  back- 
ing, but  they  are  unhandy  to  lay  and  as 
a  result  there  are  many  cities  where 
they  are  rarely  used . 

Oftentimes  architects,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  varying  or  suiting  designs, 
specify  front  brickwork  laid  up  in  regu- 
lar English  bond,  in  which  case,  if 
brick  of  Roman  sizes  are  to  be  laid,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  space  up  the  front 
bricks  to  header  bond  every  sixth  course 
into  the  backing.  This  can  always  be 
most  accurately  done  by  building  a 
small  sample  on  a  little  platform,  to  de- 
termine just  how  many  courses  of  front 
work  it  will  be  required  to  build  to 
get  the  heading  course  to  bond  with  the 
six  courses  of  backing. 

Before  Calabar,  Gold,  Mottled,  Pcm- 
peiian,  or  other  front  bricks  of  the 
darker  colors  are  laid,  each  brick  should 
be  carefully  turned  over  and  examined 
to  determine  first  if  it  be  dry,  ard  then, 
which  is  the  fair,  clean  front  edge,  as 
the  reverse  edge  is  generally  streaked 
with  black  marks  from  the  kiln  at  right 


BRICKLAYING. 


43 


angles  to  the  faces,  and  these  make  an 
unsightly  job  and  mar  the  general  ap- 
pearance of  the  front.  If  perchance 
any  should  get  in,  either  wet  or  marred, 
they  should,  when  discovered,  be  cut  out 
and  replaced.  Each  front  brick  being 
laid  should  first  be  dipped  in  water  and 
then  buttered  on  the  bottom  face  at 
each  edge  and  down  the  middle  with 
mortar.  "When  they  are  laid  on  the 
wall  each  brick  should  be  carefully 
shoved  to  its  place,  or  up  to  the  one 
preceding  in  the  course,  and  then  gently 
rubbed  down  and  tapped  till  the  joint 
is  -the  exact  thickness  required.  Ex- 
treme care,  time  and  skill  is  required  to 
do  this  work  correctly  and  thoroughly 
in  order  to  keep  all  vertical  joints  on  a 
plumb  line,  all  horizontal  joints  gauged 
true  and  level  and  of  the  same  thick- 
ness, and  all  the  front  edges  of  the 
bricks  on  the  face  of  the  wall  fair, 
plumb  and  true. 

Returns  of  "face  brickwork"  must 
be  always  carefully  bonded  and  tied 
into  the  backing  by  solid  headers  or  iron 
anchors. 


FIG.  85 — HBREING  BONING. 

In  front  or  face  brickwork  the  joints 
should  never  exceed  8-16  of  an  inch,  ex- 
cept where  regular  sizes  in  Flemish 
bond  are  used,  in  which  case  i  of  an  inch 
would  not  be  irregular.  Front  brick 
usually  measure  25  inches  to  10  courses, 
common  brick  24  inches  to  9  courses, 
So  face  bricks  must  be  properly  spaced 
out  to  thoroughly  bond,  and  all  iron 
anchors,  which  are  frequently  inserted 
with  glazed,  colored  or  enamel  bricks 
with  hollow  faces,  beds  or  sides,  or 
sometimes  with  Roman  bricks,  will  re- 
quire to  be  built  in  on  each  course. 

If  the  front  work  be  backed  up  with 


Lafarge,  PuzzaJona  or  lirre  mortar  to 
prevent  the  black  liquid  in  the  backing, 
when  laid  in  Rosendale  cement  mortar 
from  WOT  king  through  to  the  face  of  tbe 
work,  this  will  require  to  be  done,  as 
each  series  of  front  courses  is  laid,  c&re 
being  taken  not  to  jar  or  disturb  the 
front  work  The  rough  backing  may 
then  be  laid,  or  the  front  "backed  i»p,  ' 
as  it  is  technically  termed. 

Fig.  85  gives  two  designs  of  "herring 
bone"  bond,  or  "herring  boning,"  as 
many  bricklayers  term  it  This  is  not 
properly  a  bond  and  scarcely  destrves 
the  name,  but  it  is  often  introduced  in 
fronts  and  gives  an  excellent  effect 
when  artistically  introduced  in  tre  de- 
sign. It  is  most  applicable  in  panels  in 
interiors,  wainscots,  soffit  of  aiches, 
etc.,  or  any  place  where  the  brick  used 
are  colored  or  glazed  or  enameled. 

The  brickwork  shown  in  projection  at 
the  top  of  Fig.  86  represents  a  good  piece 
of  modern  front  work  when  laid,  show- 
ing inside  and  outside  angles  with  dif- 
ferent bonds,  and  here  the  reader  will 
recognize  for  the  first  time  the  import- 
ance of  the  workmanship  required  to 
make  a  first-class  job.  Laying  front 
bricks  as  they  are  manufactured  at  the- 
beginning  of  the  20th  century  is  an  art, 
and  requires  a  large  expenditure  of  time 
and  much  manual  skill  on  the  part  of 
bricklayers  in  order  that  the  work  may 
be  laid  up  in  its  details,  to  be  as  near 
perfection  as  possible  That  the  me- 
chanical skill  of  the  bricklayer  has  ad- 
Tanced  and  kept  pace  with  the  improve- 
ment in  bricks  and  terra  cotta  can  be 
seen  in  the  beautiful  elevations  of  build- 
ings which  have  been  erected  in  our 
cities  within  the  last  25  years.  Refer- 
ence to  the  engravings,  Figs.  87.  88  and 
89,  will  show  the  great  care  and  calcu- 
lation which  the  bricklayer  must  exer- 
cise in  working  out  the  complex  details 
of  front  brickwork,  designed  by  modern 
architects,  as  they  illustrate  a  few  of 
the  many  different  details  of  front  brick 
which  from  their  multifarious  and  ever- 
varying  nature  tax  the  ingenuity  of  the 
mechanic  heavily  in  laying  and  obtain- 
ing a  perfect  job.  An  eminent  archi- 
tect, at  present  practising  in  New  York, 
once  stated  in  the  presence  of  the  writer 
that  "  he  who  would  be  great  in  his  pro- 
fession must  have  the  greatest  knowl- 
edge of  its  details;"  so  that  these  en- 
gravings are  submitted  with  a  view  to 
show  the  reader  how  great  an  amount 
of  detail  there  is  in  conetructive  and 
architectural  brickwork,  and  guide  him 
in  superintending. 


44 


BRICKLAYING. 


ROMAN    BRICK.. 

11  INCH  BY  4  INCH. 

12  -     -  e  ... 

(On         „     4      „ 

:  r : 


Six  INCH  er  Tmi/t  IMCH  Ron  A/I 

ON  CORKERS  AflDJAnSi) 
FOR  SIX  inCH  BOMD  WITH 
TnELVt    mcH   ROMANS. 


fIGHT  IttCH  ROMANS  TWELVE-    IHCH  ROMAHS 

•POP  EIGHT  INCH  REVfAlS.  in   EIGHT   INCH.pOUR  INCH  £0ri!>. 

ALSO  FOR  FOUR  IflCH  BOND. 


FOUR   INCH  BYTfh'lMCH   ROnAM 
OM    COSHERS  AMD  JAMBS 
FOR  SIX   IMCH  BOMD    WITH 

TYTELVF  I«ICH 


MO.  156. 

7i  in.  SQUARE,    FOR    THREE   COl/RSFS 
OR  STANDARD  BRICK 


MQ  151. 
150  PROJECTION,   F-OVR  INCHES" 

ortt  mcH  PROJECTION  STANDARD  THICKNESS. 

STANDARD  TOKKfltiS.    SiLOflG. 

THESE  SHAPES  M»Y  BE  MADE  ROMAN  THICKHMJ. 


6 1 

E  f?ETUf?ff. 
FOR  fto4 


FIG.  86— FRONT  WORK  AND  DETAILS. 


Large  surfaces  of  front  brickwork,  if 
improperly  or  carelessly  laid,  show 
"hacks,"  or  little  shadows  and  com- 
paratively rugged  surfaces  when  under 
the  rays  of  strong  sunlight,  which  ac- 
caatuate  all  the  faults  and  defects  de- 
veloped in  the  laying,  and  render  them 
distinctly  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  but 
unfortunately  the  sun  does  not  enter 
iatothematteruntilafterallthescaflold- 
ing  is  removed  and  the  front  "washed 
down,"  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  get  an 
entire  view.  The  work  should  bs  done 
right  at  first,  and  be  free  from  imper- 
fections which  will  surely  render  the 
building  unsightly. 


Regarding  the  matter  of  ' '  pointing 
and  washing  down."  This  is  usually 
done  when  the  fronts  are  topped  out 
and  the  cornices  set  and  backed  up. 
After  pointing  each  and  every  vertical 
and  horizontal  mortar  joint,  the  wash- 
ing down  should  begin  at  the  top  and 
be  done  with  brushes  dipped  in  a  liquid 
solution  composed  of  one  part  muriatic 
acid  and  four  parts  of  water,  thoroughly 
mixed  till  its  taste  resembles  that  of 
lemonade.  As  the  front  is  washed  down 
and  all  patching  and  regulating  done, 
the  scaffolding  is  taken  down  and  the 
j  ob  is  completed.  Some  owners,  for  the 
purpose  of  preserving  the  work  from 


BRICKLAYING. 


HfADER.  MCE  KW/1,  RIGHT  OR  LffT.  SCCHOfl  Of 


fl°  Ifll.        STANDARD. 


n°J62.        STAflDARQ      OnE  IflCH  PROJECTION.        n°  163.  STANDARD. 


fROflT  VIEW  OF  n°  I&4  HEADER. 

USfD  IM  JAMBS,  BONDING  YYITM  STANDARD  BfllCK. 


Tl°  IS*.         RETURN.  HEADER.  FACE  RETURN 

PROJECTION    2  INCHES.       HEIGHTH     4^-  INCHES. 
FOR   BELT  COURSES,  TO  BOflO  YYITH    OfU  COURSE    OF  STAHDARD    BRICK   Sff  «°I2I 

rwo  COURSE  ..        .,         ..       ..    „  if 3. 


ft°l85.  RETURN 

SIAMOARO  THICKHESS. 
3  INCH  PflfljECTIOM 


STRETCHER. 


n°!86  STRETCHER. 

STANDARD  THICKNESS.     0/i£    IMCH 
PROJECTJOtt 


«0|87.    ROMAn   CHECKfR.  tl°  ififi    ROHAN  CttCKtl    lilfjO)  P(?OJ. 

ne  lay  AHD  n*i68  /»«  WED 


11°  IS9.    STAHPARD  DENTAL  AflD  CdECKtft.     2IMCHPRW 


FIG.  87 — DETAILS  OF  FRONT  WORK. 


weather  stains  and  other  possible  in- 
juries, have  their  front  brickwork 
rubbed  down  or  coated  with  one  or  two 
coats  of  pure  raw  linseed  oil,  but  this 
afterwards  can  be  done  from  a  swing- 
ing scaffold. 

As  much  of  the  artistic  success  of 
front  bricklaying  depends  upon  the 
proper  selection  and  blending  of  the 
colors  of  bricks  and  front  mortars,  only 
great  care,  past  experience,  or  the  build- 
ing of  a  small  sample  of  the  proposed 
work  should  determine  what  is  suitable. 
Small  samples  of  a  dozen  brick  or  more 
may  be  built  to  select  those  most  desir- 


able, the  mortars  being  mixed  accord- 
ing to  the  following  rules: 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  MIXING  MORTAR 
COLORS. 

First  mix  the  color  with  the  dry  sand, 
then  add  the  cold  slacked  lime,  and 
again  mix  thoroughly.  It  is  very  im 
portant  that  the  color  be  uniformly 
mixed.  If  it  is  not  added  at  first,  but 
left  until  the  mortar  is  made,  the  labor 
of  mixing  is  doubled.  The  more  thor- 
ough the  mixture,  the  less  color  is  re- 
quired, and  the  cheaper  it  is  for  the 
consumer. 


46 


BRICKLAYING. 


SPlAY.    135! 

Ttn  INCH 

110*  SPLAY. 

TO  132.  STAflOARD  5PUY,  IZOt 
MQISS  „  „        98* 

hO!55          "  «» 


nags. 
HAir  ROW  no. 
Bonoa  WITH  W 


Jl 


i 


LttO'5.  30,  31  Si  52  TOR  VfftriML   5. 

HORIZOHTAL   CHECKER 
TTOHK. 


H0.33. 
PROJtCTIOrt 

i.|  incHf e.  i 


"HQ34-. 

"OCTA&OM    BRICK, 
8^.JMCHES    LOflQ 

AUSO  vscp  roR  pen 


Ma  3S. 

FIG.  88. — FRONT  BRICK  DETAILS. 


ont  Ei6Nw  PLWI.  MO  34 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  USING  MORTAL  COLORS. 

Red,  Brown  and  Buff. 

For  laying  1,000  brick  with  spread 
joints,  use  about  50  pounds  of  color  to 
two  and  one  half  bushels  of  lime  and 
one-half  yard  of  sand.  For  buttered 
joints  use  45  pounds  of  color. 

Black. 

For  laying  1,000  brick  with  spread 
joints,  use  from  40  to  45  pounds  of  black 
color  to  two  and  one  half  bushels  of 
lime  and  one-half  yard  of  sand.  For 
buttered  joints  use  from  25  to  35  pounds 
<;olor. 


For  Mottled  Work. 
Mix  each  color  in  a  separate  portion 
of  the  mortar  or  plaster,  then  produce 
the  mottled  effect  by  combining  the  dif- 
ferent colored  mortars. 

The  following  is  the  approximate 
weight  of  mortar  colors,  Sterling  brand, 
in  each  barrel : 

Red  in  bbls.,  400  to  450  Ibs.  (dry). 

Buff  and  brown,  400  to  450  Ibs.  (dry). 

Black,  400  to  800  Ibs.  (dry). 
******* 

SIZES   OF   FRONT  BRICKS. 

There  is  some  difference  in  size  be- 
tween bricks  of  the  lighter  and  the 


BRICKLAYING. 


47 


f1»l68  RtTVRn  4'X4"T04"X8'  STRETCHER  4X8I  HEADtR 

STANDARD  THICKflCSS.     PROJECTION    l     IMCHE5 


n»  170.   STRETCHER 

FOR  f|9l32. 
5Et  PAGE  13 


STAHDARDTHlCKNfSJ. 
ROMAn  THIMNfSS  TO  ORDER 


4|incHf5  WOE. 
-        MAD  MM  STANDARD* 
'ITHOUT  KVEl 


FACt  RETURN  fOR  N°I43 

5CC  PAGf 
VXD  IHSfT50fFOVR  Ih  PAflaS 

THROUGH  TOUR 
COUK5E5  Or  STANDARD  BRICK. 


ntoe 
WTHOUT  BEVH, 


PROJKTIOH  SlMfHCJ. 
5TAHDARD  THICKtttSS 

THICK riE5S  TO  ORDtR- 


fio  174.    PROJtniOn  2  IMCHfS. 
STANDARD  THICK/1ESS  OrtlY 
MAY  BE  USED  TYITH 


D 

n 


Mnl 


IffTSTARTtR.  H?  179  STRtTCHfR.  RIGHT  STARTER.  SECTION  ««('. 

OCCUPIES  TXRIECOURStS  OP  5TAHDARD  BRiCK.         NlTRfO  QyfllMS  AMOPACt  RtTURMS    MADE  TO  ORDER. 


PROJ.  2  incuts. 

STAT1DARD  THICKNESS. 
RfcMAD  THICK  Mt5i  TO  ORKR. 


FOR  AMY 
MOUL6EO  BRICK  MADf 
TOOROtR. 


FIG.  89.— SOME  MOLDED  FRONT  BRICKS. 


darker  shades — however,  all  bricks  of 
any  one  shade  are  uniform  in  size.  The 
following  is  approximate: 

Approximate  size 
in  inches. 

Standard  size,  Red Sy&  x  2^  x  4 

Standard      size,     other 

colors S%  x  2%  x  4*4 

Roman  size,  Red 11^  x  1|^  x  4 

Roman  size,other  colors.ll^  x  1^$  x4 


Molded  shapes  are  standard  size,  un- 
less otherwise  specified. 

Molded  shapes  shown  as  standard  size 
can  usually  be  made  to  order  of  Roman 
thickness  and  standard  length. 

Impervious  "White  or  Grey  Face. 

Approximate  size 
in  inches. 

Standard  size 8%  x  2%  x  4 

Roman  size 11      x  1      x  4 


American  size  stretcher. 
American  size  header. . . 
American  size  *quoin.. . . 
American  size  return.. . 


Enameled  Bricks. 
Approximate  size. 

.  .  .  ss  x  2    x  4    s 


x  2X  x  4 
x  2X  x  4 


Enameled  surfaces. 


x  2X  and  4  x  2% 

x  2X  and  2^  x  4  and 


48 


BRICKLAYING. 


Approximate  size. 

Roman  size  stretcher 11>6  x  1ft  x  4 

Roman  size  header lift  x  1ft  x  4 

Roman  size  *quoin 

Roman  size  return 

Roman  Tile  Enameled  on  flat.. . .  lift  x  1'ft  x  4 
Roman    Tile    Enameled  on  flat 

quoin lift  x  ift  x  4 

English  size  stretcher 9      x3      x  4 

English  size  header 9      x3      x4 

English  size  *quoin 9      x3     x  4 ' 

English  size  return 9      x3      x  4^ 

English  size  Enameled  on  flat. .  .  9      x  3      x  4} 
English    size  Enameled  on   flat 

*quoin 9      x3      x  4,  _ 

Soap  brick,  American  size 8^  x  2#  x  2^  8> 

*  These  quoins  are  made  with  either  square  -or  round  corners. 


Enameled  sui  faces. 


x  ij 

x  l] 

X  1; 

x  1 ; 

lift  x  4X 


x4 
x3 
x3 
x3 
x3 


and  4x1^ 

and  4x1^  and  4  x 

and  4x1^ 


and  ±y2  x  3 
and  4>£  x  3 


x3 


x  4^  and 

x  2}/ 


x  3 


Enameled  Bricks  of  superior  quality 
are  manufactured  in  the  following  sizes. 
They  may  be  obtained  enameled  on 
three  sides  if  desired : 

English  size, sq.  corners.  9      x3     x  4>£ 
English      size,      round 

corners. 9      x3      x4^ 

Roman  size,  round  and 

square  corners 11#  x  1#  x  4 

Amer.  size,  round  and 

square  corners 8^  x  2#  x  4 

American  soap,   square 

corners 8^x2^x2^ 

Glazed  Bricks. 

These  bricks  having  a  transparent 
glaze  on  the  surface  of  a  white  pink, 
buff  or  grey  color,  produce  beautiful 
effects,  and  the  glazed  surface  being 
impervious  to  moisture  give  a  brick  of 
high  value  from  the  standpoint  of 
cleanliness  and  hygiene.  They  may  be 
obtained  same  shapes  and  sizes  as 
enameled  bricks. 

COLORS. 

Buff,  grey,  gold,  mottled,  and  Pom- 
peiian  bricks  are  not  assorted  to  shade 
closely  as  is  customary  with  red  bricks. 

This  variety,  in  harmonious  shades, 
adds  to  the  beauty  of  a  building. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


BRICK   ARCHES,  LINTELS  AND    PIERS. 
PARAPET  AND  HOLLOW  WALLS. 

OPENINGS     in     brick     walls     are 
spanned   in   two  ways;    by  solid 
stone,  wood   or  iron    lintels  and 
girders,    or    by    brick    or    stone 
arches  of  different  forms.     So  the  sub- 
ject of  brick  arches  will  now  be  taken 
up  by  first  illustrating,  at  Fig.  90-A,  a 


simple  stone  lintel  4  inches  thick,  3 
courses  of  brick  high  and  having  4  or  5 
inches  of  bearing. 

The  forms  of  brick  arches  generally 
used  in  buildings  are  named  the  flat 
arch  or  the  camber  arch,  the  segment 
arch,  the  semicircular  arch,  the  elliptic 
arch,  and  the  Gothic  arch.  These  may 
all  be  built  of  brick,  so  we  will  com- 
mence with  simple  segment  arch  over 
window  frames,  door  frames,  etc. 


FIG.  90  A-P. 

The  construction  of  this  arch  is  com- 
paratively simple,  as  the  bricks  are  laid 
face  to  face  with  the  bottom  edge  rest- 
ing on  the  -'centre,"  a  wooden  frame- 
work set  temporarily  below  to  carry  it. 
The  bricks  are  laid,  from  the  skewbacks 
at  the  line  of  window  or  door  jambs  to 
the  centre  or  crown  of  the  arch,  each 
brick  being  thoroughly  beddea  in  mor- 
tar face  to  face  and  laid  true  on  the 
face  and  edge.  "When  the  centre  or 
crown  is  reached  the  arch  or  "row- 
lock" of  brick  is  there  wedged  tight, 


BRICKLAYING. 


49 


by  fitting  a  tapered  piece  of  brick  to 
form  a  key.  Should  a  second  <k  row- 
lock" be  required  it  is  laid  as  just  de- 
scribed. This  foregoing  operation  is 
explained  by  Fig  90-B,  where  two  row- 
locks of  brick  are  shown  turned  over  a 
window  opening.  These  arches  should 
never  be  tuined  with  brick  set  on  end 
as  the  joints  are  too  wide  at  the  top  and 
consequently  the  arch  is  weak,  but  they 
can  be  used  in  bonded  arches  if  desired. 
The  two  or  more  rowlock  arch  is  the 
strongest  because  the  greatest  strain 
comes  on  the  soffit  and  an  arch  built  of 
many  rowlocks  has  more  brick  and  less 
mortar  and  as  many  soffits  as  it  has 
rowlocks.  All  brick  arches  should  be 
grouted  or  at  least  well  slushed  up  with 
mortar  so  as  to  form  when  the  mortar 
has  set  a  solid  piece  of  brickwork. 

The  flat  arch  or  brick  lintel,  Fig.  91, 
is  so  called  because,  as  will  he  seen  in 
the  engraving,  it  is  almost  flat  on  the 
bottom  soffit  and  top  extrados.  This 
arch,  both  in  rough  or  face  brickwork 
must  have  the  bricks  forming  the 


FIG.  91. 

*'  voussoirs"  tapered  by  cutting,  grind- 
ing or  molding  to  wedge-shape,  as  seen 
in  the  engraving.  The  bricklaying  of 
a  flat  arch  must  be  very  carefully  done, 
as  the  rise  of  the  soffit  is  so  slight  if  the 
bricks  do  not  adhere  tightly,  face  to 
face,  one  or  more  bricks  are  liable  to 
slide  down  and  ruin  the  arch.  For  the 
same  reason  the  mortar  joints  should 
never  be  thick,  in  order  to  avoid  all 
possible  shrinkage  of  the  mortar.  The 
deeper  a  flat  arch  is  the  better  and 
stronger  it  is,  because  the  strength  in- 
creases as  the  depth  is  increased;  for 
instance,  a  flat  arch  16  inches  deep  is 
twice  as  strong  as  one  8  inches  deep, 
chough  flat  arches  are  never  used  for 
bearing  purposes,  only  on  fronts  or 
ornamental  work.  The  following  pro- 

Eortions  may  be  safely  followed  in  lay- 
ag  out  flat  arches  for  front  work: 
When  ground  to  suit  the  skewback 
for  a  flat  arch,  with  radius  one  and  a 
half  times  width  of  opening,  as  at  Fig. 


One  standard  stretcher  gives  height 
equal  to  three  courses  brick  standard 
size  laid  flat. 

One  Roman  stretcher  gives  height 
equal  to  six  courses  Roman  size  laid 
flat. 

One  header,  either  Standard  or  Ro- 
man, gives  a  height  of  3  ^  to  3X  inches, 
Multiples  of  any  of  the  above  give  pro- 
portionate height.  When  radius  is  not 
as  much  as  \yz  times  the  width  of  open- 
ing, it  still  further  reduces  the  height 
obtained  from  each  brick.  When  only 
four  inches  of  reveal  is  required,  face  of 
arch  may  be  made  any  height  desired 
by  grinding  apparent  headers  from 
stretchers. 


Fia.  91  — A  AND  B. 

When  flat  arches  are  being  ordered 
from  the  brick  manufacturers,  either  a 
detailed  drawing  should  be  prepared 
together  with  a  quarter  scale  tracing  of 
the  entire  front  or  the  following  meas- 
urements be  given : 

1.  Width  of  opening.  2.  Height  of 
facia  in  inches  or  courses  of  brick  3. 
Depth  of  soffit  in  inches.  4.  Location 
of  centre;  to  locate  centre  give  any  one 
of  the  following:  a.  length  of  radius  to 
spring  of  arch;  b.  length  of  radius  to 
centre  of  jamb;  c.  width  of  top  of  arch; 
d.  pitch  of  heel  in  degrees.  5.  When  key, 
other  than  brick,  is  used,  give  width  of 
the  key  on  jamb  line.  6.  Give  inches, 
if  laid  with  cut  stone  in  skewback. 
Give  number  of  courses,  if  laid  with 
bricks  in  skewback. 

If  the  voussoirs  for  brick  lintels  or 
camber  arches  must  be  cut  from  regu- 
lar brick  at  the  building,  the  best  way 
to  proceed  is  to  use  a  templet  shaped  to 
the  taper  of  one  voussoir,  and  set  a 


50 


BRICKLAYING. 


bevel  for  each  top  and  bottom  cut  for 
the  soffet  and  extrados. 

The  Segmental  arch  for  front  work 
A,  Fig.  91,  resembles  that  described  in 
Fig.  90-B,  and  differs  from  the  Seg- 
mental arch,  with  a  flat  top  or  extra- 
dos, Fig.  91-B,  which  is  rarely  used  in 
bearing  walls,  being  mostly  employed 
for  decorative  purposes  in  front  work, 
etc.  It  is  a  combination  of  the  Segment 
and  flat  arches,  and  has  the  bricks, 
forming  its  voussoirs  molded,  ground  or 
rubbed  to  fit  as  shown  in  the  engrav- 
ing, where  also  a  stone  or  terra  cotta 
Keystone  is  represented,  inserted  for 
architectural  effect. 

If  not  possible  to  furnish  a  drawing, 
the  following  measurements  should  be 


and  give  a  neat  mechanical  appearance, 
as  seen  in  the  ergraving.  "When  making 
the  drawings  for  these  arches  the  fol- 
lowing mea&urements  must  be  accur- 
ately figured  on  each,  care  being  taken 
that  they  are  correct,  as  the  least 
deviation  will  spoil  the  arch:  1.  Badius 
of  circle  or  width  of  opening.  2.  "Width 
of  facia.  3.  Depth  of  ecffit.  For  piers : 
4.  Width  of  pier  on  base  line.  5.  Num- 
ber of  arches  in  each  set  or  number  of 
piers. 

The  construction  of  the  Elliptic  arch 
in  rough  brickwork  is  simple,  as  the 
bricks  are  laid  on  edge  as  headers  en 
ihe  centre  and  carried  up  rowlock  ty 
rowlock,  to  the  desired  thickness,  but 
for  front  work  the  bricks  must  be  molded 


given:  For  Segmental  arches,  round 
or  flat  top.  1.  Width  of  opening.  2. 
Radius  of  circle  or  rise  of  arch  in  cen- 
ter. 3.  Width  of  facia  for  flat  tops 
measure  facia  in  center.  4.  Depth  of 
soffit.  5.  Dimension  of  key  on  jamb 
line.  Give  inches,  if  laid  with  cut  stone 
in  skewback.  Give  number  of  courses, 
if  laid  with  bricks  in  skewbacks.  If  on 
piers,  give  width  of  pier. 

The  construction  of  the  arches  illus- 
trated in  the  last  two  engravings  em- 
body much  of  the  Detail  requisite  in 
turning  the  two  semicircular  arches 
represented  at  Fig.  92-A.  with  the  ex- 
ception that  those  in  Fig.  90-A  are  only 
one  brick  laid  stretcher- ways  in  the 
ring  intersecting  on  a  center  pier  and 
forming  a  vertical  joint.  All  the  vous- 
soirs for  these  arches  must  be  special- 
ly made  from  drawings  in  order  that 
they  may  be  truly  and  accurately  laid, 


FIG   93. 


as  before  to  suit  the  different  radii.  Fig. 
92-B  represents  the  bricks  of  an  Elliptic 
arch  for  front  work,  to  which  it  is 
better  adapted  than  to  rough  work,  for 
the  reason  that  it  is  structurally  a  weak 
arch,  and  not  so  economical  to  build  as 
either  the  semicircular  or  Sep men- 
tal arches,  over  openings  which  have 
weight  placed  over  them.  For  front 
brick  Elliptic  arches  always  give  the 
following  details:  Width  of  opening; 
each  of  the  three  radii;  rise  or  spring 
of  arch;  depth  of  reveal  or  soffit;  height 
of  face;  size  of  joints;  if  on  piers,  give 
width  of  pier  or  piers;  3-16  inch  unless 
otherwise  specified:  when  special  key- 
is  used  give  dimensions  of  it;  archi- 
traves or  any  rowlock  arches;  a.  with 
continuous  joint,  see  right  hand  side; 
b.  with  broken  joint,  see  left  hand  side. 
Brick  Gothic  arches  of  various  forms 
are  mostly  employed  in  Ecclesiastical 


BRICKLAYING. 


51 


edifices,  as  churches  of  Gothic  design, 
and,  like  the  foregoing  front  bricks,  are 
always  rm  de  from  an  architect's  detail. 
The  utmost  care  and  skill  are  demanded 
from  the  bricklayer  in  this  work;  in 
fact,  it  is  in  buildings  of  this  class  and 
character  that  the  art  of  bricklaying 
reaches  its  climax,  because  brickwork 
in  its  application  to  Gothic  architecture 
is  the  very  perfection  of  brick  detail. 
See  Fig.  93.  It  may  perhaps  be  claimed 
that  the  intermingling  of  terra  cotta 
with  brick  gives  a  more  effective  eleva- 
tion than  brickwork  alone,  but  the  lat- 
ter, if  elaborately  treated,  always  shows 
the  labor  and  skill  expended,  both  in 
the  manufacturing  and  laying  of  the 
brick.  Though  the  setting  of  terra  cotta 
is  now  part  of  the  art  of  bricklaying,  it 


FIG.  94 

is  not  regarded  by  bricklayers  as  the 
best  part  of  their  work,  as  it  does  not 
require  as  much  skill,  for  the  reason 
that  there  is  always  a  fitter  sent  to 
every  job  to  select  and  pick  out  and  to 
fit  together  the  different  details  frc  m 
the  detailed  drawings,  so  that  only  the 
setting  in  position  is  left  for  the  brick- 
layer. 

Mg.  94  represents  a  discharging  or 
relieving  arch  turned  over  a  wide  door 
opening  in  a  24-inch  interior  brick  wall 
for  the  purpose  of  relieving  the  strain 
upon  the  cast-jron  lintel  placed  across 
it  by  resisting  the  vertical  pressure  of 
the  mass  of  brickwork  above,  which 
would  fracture  the  brittle  metal.  It  is 
built  upon  a  center  of  brickwork  and 
solidly  into  the  wall,  so  as  to  be  a  part  of 
same. 

Wh^n  ordering  arches  for  front  work, 
all  necessary  information  as  to  details 
should  be  given  when  anything  more 


than  a  simple  semi-circular,  segment, 
gothic,  or  flat  arch  is  wanted,  also  a 
full  size  detail  of  half  of  the  arch,  es- 
pecially if  cut  stone  or  terra  cotta  is 
used  in  connection  with  the  brickwork. 

Always  furnish  det  ails  ab  long  as  possi- 
ble in  advance  of  time  the  arches  will 
be  needed.  With  all  necessary  bricks  in 
stock,  it  will  take  to  grind  arches  two 
weeks  from  receipt  oi  order.  If  mould- 
ed shapes  are  not  in  stock,  and  must  be 
made  before  they  are  ground  for  the 
arches,  allow  eight  weeks  after  receipt 
of  order. 

At  the  bottom  of  this  illustration 
readers  will  perceive  I  have  drawn 
two  inverted  brick  arches,  support- 
ing three  brick  piers.  It  will  be  no- 
ticed that  these  are  only  segmental 
arches,  represented  at  Fig.  90-B,  turned 
upside  down  with  the  extrados  set  on  & 
solid  bed  of  concrete  or  brickwork. 
These  arches  are  often  adopted  by  engi- 
ne«*rs  and  architects  for  spreading  the 
area  of  the  pier  footings  or  distributing 
their  vertical  pressure.  The  skewbacks, 
like  the  arches,  are*  also  inverted,  and 
as  they  constitute  bases  or  foundation 
for  footings,  the  workmanship  of  the 
bricklaying  of  these  arches  must  be  of 
the  very  best  character  and  always  laid 
in  cement.  For  greater  accuracy  the 
curve  of  the  bottom  rowlock  should 
invariably  he  laid  out  from  a  templet, 
great  care  being  taken  to  get  the  skew- 
backs  to  the  exact  radii. 


Fia.  95. 

Fig.  95  exhibits  a  Fire-Proof  Floor, 
with  Brick  Arches,  Leveled  up  with 
Concrete  and  Wood  Strips.  Imbedded 
for  Flooring ;  and  Fig.  96— Hollow  Terra 


{-~rir*r*A    <*<rrr/l- 

FIG.  96. 

Cotta  Arch  Fire- Proof  Floor,  with 
Concrete  and  Wood  Strij  s  Imbedded  to 
Receive  Flooring  Nails. 

At  Fig  97  a  very  inexpensive  system 
of  setting  centres  for  tuining  tr-e  brick 
or  terra  cotta  arches  between  I  beams 
will  be  seen.  It  consist?  of  2  inch  x4 
inch  or  2  inch  x  6  inch  spruce  joists  laid 
lengthways  on  top  and  bottom  flanges 
of  each  I  beam;  the  bottom  joist  being 


BRICKLAYING. 


hung  to  that  on  top  by  means  of  1  inch 
x  3  inch  or  1±  inch  x  4  inch  spruce 
cleats  or  strips.  The  curved  bearers  are 
set  on  the  bottom  strips  and  nailed 
thereon  and  the  battens  are  laid  on 
loose  edge  to  edge,  thus  making  the 


spaced  about  six  feet  apart.    Wire  nails 
are  the  most  reliable  for  this  job. 

Fig.  98  shows  a  form  of  centre  with 
wrought  iron  suspension  hooks  and 
joists  carrying  the  frames  for  the  centre 
for  arches  when  turned  in  a  heavy  Fire- 


centres  easily  removed  from  the  arch,  to 
the  next  opening,  when  the  cement  has 
set  sufficiently  hard  to  allow  it,  by  sim- 
ply wedging  off  the  strips  from  the 
upper  joist.  The  writer  has  seen  many 
brick  and  terra  cotta  arches  turned  on 


FIG.  97.— METHOD  OF  SETTING  CENTRES 
FOR  FIRE  PROOF  FLOORS. 

this  simple  and  cheap  form  of  centre 
and  it  works  admirably,  carrying  both 
men  and  material  safely.  The  cleats 
should  be  nailed  opposite  each  other  on 
different  sides  of  each  beam,  and  be 


FIG.    98.— SECTION    OF    FIRE-PROOF 
FLOOR  AND  ITS  CONSTRUCTION. 


proof  Floor  between  deep  I  beams.  This 
cut  also  shows  concrete  and  wood  sleep 
ers  for  floors  and  bricklayers,  wrought 
iron  hanger  for  carrying  centres  with 
clip  to  catch  on  flange  of  steel  I  beam. 

Fig.  99.— Section  of  Elliptic  Brick 
Arch  over  86th  Street  Transverse  Road 
through  Central  Park,  New  York  City. 

PIERS. 

The  next  important  detail  to  be  con- 
sidered in  constructive  and  "architec- 
tural brickwork"  is  the  laying  up  of 
piers,  or  columns  of  brick,  which  are 
used  for  supporting  wood,  iron  or  steel 
columns,  beams  and  girders  and  conse- 
quently require  explanation. 

Piers  are  of  three  kinds,  viz.,  isolated, 
connected  and  battered.  By  referring 
to  Fig.  100  of  the  illustrations  readers 
will  find  an  isometrical  dra  A  ing  of  an 
8  in.  by  fl  in.,  or  eight  inch  isolated  brick 
pier,  with  a  stepped-up  footing,  consist- 
ing of  three  courses  of  bricks,  stepped 
or  set  back  one  inch  on  each  course, 


BRICKLAYING. 


53 


FIG.  99— SECTION  OP  BRICK  ARCH  OVER  86TH  STREET 
TRANSVERSE  ROAD,  CENTRAL  PARK,  N.  Y.  CITY. 

which  is  done  to  enlarge  the  area  of  the 
base  of  the  pier  and  distribute  the  bear- 
ing weight  with  a  greater  area. 

The  construction  necessary  in  build- 
ing this  pier  is  very  simple,  as  the  bricks 


Fio.  100.— 8-iN.  BRICK  PIER  WITH  BOND 

STONE. 

are  laid  alternately  header  and  stretcher 
on  each  course,  two  bricks  to  a  course, 
and  the  pier  has  a  bond  stone  set  in  at  a 
height  of  2  feet  6  inches  from  its  base. 
These  bond  stones  are  inserted  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  greater  coherency  to 
the  pier  by  connecting  its  constituent 
parts  or  bricks  together,  but  they  might 


FIG.  101.— 12-iN.  BRICK  PIER. 

safely  be  omitted  in  8-inch  isolated  brick 
piers,  as  there  are  scarcely  sufficient 


54 


BRICKLAYING. 


bricks  in  width  to  require  them,  unless 
the  pier  be  high,  in  which  case  they 
should  be  inserted,  but  no  isolated  brick 
pier  should  exceed  in  height  10  times  its 
least  dimensions.  It  is  now  the  custom 
to  insert  them  in  all  brick  piers  less 


wall,  thus  crossing  the  bonds.  The 
4^-inch  bond  stones  to  space  out  about 
2  feet  6  inches  apart  will  occur  about 
every  15  courses. 

The  necessity  for  the  bond  stones  will 
be  appreciated  by  referring  to  Fig.  102, 
a  IB  x  13  inch  isolated  brick  pier,  the 
construction  of  which  resembles  the 
bricklaying  shown  in  Fig.  101 ,  and  should 
have  the  heading  courses  laid  every 


Fia.  102.— 16  x  16  IN.  BRICK  PIER. 


FIG.  103.— 20-iN.  BRICK  PIER. 


than  nine  square  feet  in  their  sectional 
area. 

Fig.  101  represents  a  12  by  12  inch 
isolated  brick  pier,  built  with  bricks,  so 
as  to  show  headers  and  stretchers  on  all 
four  sides.  A  stronger  job  may  be  ob- 
tained by  inserting  a  course  of  headers 
in  every  sixth  course,  as  in  a  straight 


sixth  course  for  greater  strength.  In 
this  engraving  also  three  bond  stones 
are  shown,  with  a  granite  templet,  or 
capstone,  set  on  top  of  the  topmost 
stone,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the 
base  of  a  cast  iron  or  steel  column,  or 
girders.  The  setting  of  these  capstones 
and  templets  for  columns  or  girders, 


BRICKLAYING. 


55 


whether  they  be  in  a  continuous  wall 
or  on  isolated  piers,  also  devolves  on  the 
bricklayer,  and  it  is  his  duty  to  see  that 
they  are  thoroughly  bedded  in  Portland 
cement  mortar  and  rubbsd  down  on  the 
upper  bond  atone  until  all  the  air  in 
the  mortar  is  driven  out  and  sufficient 
vacuum  formed  between  thetwo  stones 
to  give  a  strong,  immovable  bond.  An- 
other very  important  detail  which  needs 
care  in  the  workmanship  is  the  setting 


/ 

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work  must  not  be  jarred  or  the  bonds 
broken.  A  hollow  or  void  in  the  middle 
of  the  stone  will  certainly  mean  its 
cracking  when  the  superposed  weight  it 
must  carry  is  placed  above  it.  For  this 
reason  the  proper  setting  of  bond  stones 
is  a  serious  matter,  as  they  are  essential 
to  ensure  the  full  carrying  capacity  of 
each  pier.  Bond  stones  should  always 
be  the  full  size  of  the  horizontal  sec- 
tional area  of  the  pier,  be  spaced  not 
more  than  30  inches  apart,  and  not  less 
than  4  inches  thick. 

Cast  iron  plates  are  sometimes  used 
to  bond  brick  piers,  but  their  liability  to 
rapid  corrosion  renders  them  objection- 
able for  safe  building. 


FIG.  104— 24-iN.  BRICK  PIER. 


FIG.  lu5— BATTERED  BRICK  PIER. 


of  the  bond  stones  and  grouting  by 
courses.  Every  course  should  have  a 
slushing  with  liquid  cement  thoroughly 
worked  into  all  joints.  These  important 
factors  in  isolated  piers  are  usually  of 
bluestone  or  marble,  and  will  require  to 
be  good  flat  stones,  out  of  wind  and 
dressed  square  and  flat  When  setting, 
they  should  be  carefully  laid  in  position 
on  a  full  bed  of  good,  strong  cement 
mortar,  and  gently  rubbed  or  tapped 
down  until  the  mortar  oozes  from  be- 
neath on  all  four  sides,  care  being  taken 
that  the  joint  is  not  too  thick;  the  stone 
is  kept  level  and  flash  all  around  with 
the  four  faces  of  the  pier,  but  the  brick- 


The  foregoing  description  applies  in 
the  same  details  to  the  20x20-inch  iso- 
lated brick  pier  illustrated  at  Fig.  103, 
where  the  base  of  the  brickwork  rests 
on  a  Portland  cement  concrete  footing, 
and  is  shown  here  stepped  back  in  one 
inch  stoppings  on  the  right  side  and 
two^inch  stoppings  on  the  leftside,  thus 
giving  greater  stability  to  the  pier.  The 
bond  stones  are  respectively  4  and  5 
inches  thick,  and  approximately  2  feet 
6  inches  or  15  courses  of  brick  apart. 

Fig.  104  represents  an  isolated  24x 
24  inch  pier  with  stepped  up  base  and 
one  bond  stone,  set  15  courses  up.  This 
large  pier  is  here  represented  in  course 


56 


BRICKLAYING. 


of  construction,  and  involves  much 
bricklaying  and  consequently  careful 
bonding  and  full  grouting.  Connected 
piers  are  those  bonded  to  walls  and 
strengthened  for  bearing  purposes  with 
bond  stones  properly  spaced. 

The  strongest  brick  pier  which  it  is 
possible  to  construct  is  represented  in 
elevation  at  Fig.  105,  where  a  battered 
or  tapered  brick  pier  is  depicted  dimin- 
ishing by  i  inch steppings  from  the  base 
to  the  top,  and  capped  with  a  bond 
stone,  on  which  a  granite  block  or  cap- 
stone is  set  for  the  purpose  of  supporting 
a  cast-iron  column,  the  base  resting  and 
bedded  in  liquid  cement  on  the  top  side 
of  the  granite  block,  which  is  accurately 
leveled  off  to  receive  it.  Brick  piers  of 
this  class  and  form,  when  properly  built, 


.Be/»M.3'< 
Y~~*. 


£ 

T 

.     '               ^r 

Fia.  106— BASE  OF  WALLS  OR  PIERS 
WITH  DIFFERENT  STEPPINGS. 


bonded  and  grouted  have  the  greatest 
bearing  capacity  of  any  constructed,  and 
when  possible  should  be  used,  but  the 
expense  involved  in  the  bricklaying  and 
the  extra  space  they  occupy  discrimi- 
nates against  their  universal  adoption. 
However,  for  engineering  works  or  for 
isolated  piers  on  compressible  bottoms 
of  clay  or  any  nature  where  it  is  neces- 
sary to  distribute  the  area  of  pressure, 
they  are  invaluable. 

Isolated  brick  piers  and  skewbacks 
adopted  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the 
thrust  of  arches  and  vaulting  may  also 
be  built,  but  as  they  embody  the  con- 
struction described  in  the  foregoing, 
with  the  addition  of  cutting  the  skew- 
backs  at  the  top  to  suit  the  radii  of  the 
arches,  no  further  description  is  neces 
sary.  In  a  similar  way  piers  of  front, 
glazed,  enameled  or  molded  bricks  can 
also  be  built,  but,  if  intended  to  sustain 


weight  and  be  of  large  sectional  area, 
with  a  rough  brick  core,  then  as  the  core 
supports  the  weight  it  should  be  most 
carefully  built,  especially  if  the  faces  be 
laid  in  running  bond  to  form  a  veneer 
ing  or  finished  facework. 

Front  brick  piers  with  brrd  stones  of 
Indiana  limestone,  or  any  other  stor  e  of 
an  absorbent  nature,  will  require  a  layer 
of  mastic  cement,  Lafarge  or  Pnz- 
zalona  on  top,  bottom  and  rear  sides  to 


FIG.  107— PARAPET  WALLS  COPED  WITH 
TERRA  COTTA  AND  STONE. 

prevent  the  capillary  attraction  in  the 
stone  from  absorbing  the  dark  liquid  of 
the  cement  into  the  stone  and  its  conse- 
quent discoloration,  and  if  the  pier  be 
anchored  or  bonded  to  a  gable  or  party 
wall  it  is  best  laid  up  in  strong  lime 
mortar. 

Brick  piers  which  are  not  isolated  or 
over  9  square  feet  in  area  and  are 
bonded  or  anchored  to  walls  occurring 
at  right  angles  or  otherwise,  require  the 
same  laying  as  described  for  straight 


BRICKLAYING. 


walls,  and  I  will  now  close  this  subject 
by  referring  the  reader  to  the  four  dif- 
ferent methods  of  stepped-up  work  il- 
lustrated in  Fig .  106,  A,  B,  C  and  D.  A 
represents  the  foot  or  commencement  of 
a  16-inch  brick  wall  for  a  city  dwelling 
or  tenement;  on  top  of  the  stone  foun- 
dation, with  the  first  and  second  courses 
stepped  back,  thus  distributing  the 
pressure  over  the  top  of  the  stone  wall. 
Similarly  with  diagram  B,  C  shows  how 
the  brickwork  as  laid  has  no  structural 
value,  8  inches  of  strength  being  lost, 
and  D  shows  how  4  inches  may  be  lost. 
In  concluding  this  subject  of  piers,  I 


FIG.  108— 10xl6-iN.  HOLLOW  WALLS. 

would  advise  that  the  introduction  of 
•'  Rowlocks"  or  bricks  on  edge,  be  avoided 
as  much  as  possible  when  building  piers. 
Parapet  walls,  or  fire  walls,  as  they 
are  frequently  termed,  are  those  seen  in 
the  engraving  Fig.  107,  which  are  car- 
ried up  sufficiently  high  above  the  level 
of  the  roof  to  prevent  fire,  should  any 
break  out  in  the  adjoining  building, 
from  spreadin  g  or  working  over.  These 
walls  are  built  8  inches  thick  and  from 
12  to  M  inches  high  above  the  roof  for 
rear,  party  and  gable  walls ;  and  from 
86  to  42  inches  for  light  shaft  and  court 
walls,  4  ins.  of  brick  work  being  always 
kept  between  the  ends  of  the  roof  beams 


to  prevent  the  smoke,  blaze  or  sparhs 
from  traveling  from  one  tier  of  beams 
to  the  next.  The  bricks  in  parapet  and 
fire  walls  should  invariably  be  laid  in 
cement  mortar  and  coped  or  covered 
with  terra  cotta,  stone  <  r  metal  to  pre- 
vent rain  water,  frost,  etc.,  from  perco- 
lating down  into  the  mortar  joints  and 
causing  early  disintegration  of  the  woi  k. 
A  in  the  engraving  shows  a  section  of 
12-inch  bearing  wall  with  8  inch  wall 
and  roof  beams  and  flashing  The  blue- 
stone  or  marble  coping  B  is  a  corner, 
and  C  a  bottom  view  of  terra  cotta 
coping. 

Hollow  walls:  These  walls  are  of 
value  for  the  economical  construction  of 
ice  houses,  dampproof  structures  or  any 
purpose  where  it  is  desirable  to  obtain  a 
wall  or  rather  two  parallel  walls  with  a 
vacant  or  hollow  air  space  between,  as 
Fig.  108.  The  bricklaying  necessary  for 
them  is  comparatively  simple  in  charac- 
ter, as  the  walls  being  non-bearing  are 
simply  tied  together  at  every  fifth  or 
sixth  course  by  headers  spaced  every 
three  or  four  feet,  longitudinally,  and  a 
space  of  from  two  to  four  inches  left  be- 
tween the  inside  faces  of  the  parallel 
walls.  For  thin  partition  walls,  two 
one-brick  thicknesses  will  be  sufficient, 
but  for  thicker  walls  two  or  more  thick- 
nesses of  8  inches  may  be  built  with  a 
4  inch  intervening  space.  Sometimes  the 
brick  bonding  is  omitted  and  iron  or 
steel  ties  are  substituted,  to  tie  the  walls 
together. 

The  following  excerpt  from  the  New 
York  Building  Code  governs  the  con- 
struction of  piers  in  that  city,  and  will 
be  found  useful  in  connection  with  the 
foregoing : 

"Every  pier  built  of  brick,  containing 
less  th  an  nine  superficial  feet  at  the  base, 
supporting  any  beam,  girder,  arch  or 
column  on  which  a  wall  rests,  or  lintel 
spanning  an  opening  over  ten  fpet  and 
supporting  a  wall,  shall  at  intervals  of 
not  over  thirty  inches  apart  in  height 
have  built  into  it  a  bond  stone  not  less 
than  four  inches  thick,  or  a  cast  iron 
plate  of  sufficient  strength,  and  the  full 
size  of  the  piers.  For  piers  fronting  on 
a  street  the  bond  stones  may  conform 
with  the  kind  of  stone  used  for  the 
trimmings  of  the  front.  Capstones  of 
cut  granite  or  bluestone,  proportioned 
to  the  weight  to  be  carried,  but  rot  less 
than  five  inches  in  thickness,  by  the  full 
size  of  the  pier,  or  cast  iron  plates  of 
equal  strength  by  the  full  size  of  the 
pier,  shall  be  set  under  all  columns  or 
girders,  except  where  a  4-inch  bond 
stone  is  placed  immediately  below  said 


58 


BRICKLAYING. 


capstone,  in  which  case  the  capstone 
may  be  reduced  in  horizontal  dimen- 
sions at  the  discretion  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Buildings  having  jurisdiction. 


are  generally  built  for  coal  smoke  flues 
8x8  inches  or  8x12  inches,  inside  meas- 
urement, or  a  brick  wide  and  a  brick 
and  a  half  long,  and  a  partition,  one 


1 


I 


FIG.  109.— CHIMNEY  BREAST  WITH  FLUES. 


Isolated  brick  piers  shall  not  exceed  in 
height  ten  times  their  least  dimen- 
sions Stone  posts  for  the  support  of 
posts  or  columns  above  shall  not  be  used 
•ia  the  interior  of  any  building.  Where 
walls  or  piers  are  built  of  coursed  stones, 
with  dressed  level  beds  and  vertical 
joints,  the  Department  of  Buildings 
shall  have  the  right  to  allow  such  walls 
or  piers  to  be  built  of  a  less  thickness 
than  specified  for  brickwork,  but  in  no 
case  shall  said  walls  or  piers  be  less  than 
three  quarters  of  the  thickness  provided 
for  brickwork. 

"In  all  brick  walls  every  sixth  course 
shall  be  a  heading  course,  except  where 
walls  are  faced  with  brick  in  running 
bond,  in  which  latter  case,  every  sixth 
course  shall  be  bonded  into  the  backing 
by  cutting  the  course  of  the  face  brick 
and  putting  in  diagonal  headers  behind 
the  same,  or  by  splitting  the  fa  *e  brick 
in  half  and  bac  king  the  same  with  a  con- 
tinuous row  of  headers.  Where  face 
brick  is  usei  of  a  different  thickness 
from  the  brick  used  for  the  backing,  the 
courses  of  the  exterior  and  interior 
brickwork  shall  be  brought  to  a  level 
bed  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  ten 
courses  in  height  of  the  face  brick,  and 
the  face  brick  shall  be  properly  tied  to 
the  backing  by  a  heading  cour-e  of  the 
face  brick.  All  bearing  walls  faced 
with  brick  laid  in  running  bond  shall 
be  four  inches  thicker  than  the  walls  are 
required  to  be  under  any  section  of  this 
Code." 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

BUILDING    CHIMNEYS,    FLUES    AND 
CHIMNEY  BREASTS. 

COMING  now  to  the  brick  construc- 
tion of  the  above  essential  details 
of  buildings,  I  would  state  that 
the  sizes  of  smoke  flues  are  regu- 
lated by  the  purpose  for  which  th°y 
are  ussd.    If  the  flues  be  not  lined  they 


brick  thick,  is  carried  up  between  them, 
in  the  manner  represented  at  Fig.  109. 
This  engraving  shows  the  section  in 


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FIG.    110.— ELEVATION   OF  CHIMNEY 
BREAST  AND  FLUES. 

detail  of  the  full  brick  construction  of 
a  modern  chimney  breast,  built  on  the 
5th  floor  of  an  apartment  house  The 
side  or  gable  wall  is  12  inches  thick  and 


BRICKLAYING. 


59 


the  chimney,  containing  5  flues,  is  pro- 
jected into  the  room  8  inches,  which 
is  done  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  8 
inches  of  brickwork  on  the  outside  or 
face  of  the  wall  for  necessary  strength. 
This  proj  ection  is  termed  the  ' '  Chimney 
BreasV  and  is  necessary  to  contain  the 
flues.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  flues 
are  lined  with  fire  clay  or  terra  cotta 
"  linings,"  which  are  short  lengths  of 
cylindrical  shape,  set  end  on  end,  from 
the  mouth  or  intake  of  each  flue  at  the 
bottom  to  the  outlet  at  the  chimney  top, 
thus  forming  a  clean,  smooth  conduit 
for  the  fire  and  smoke  from  stove  or  fire- 
place to  the  outer  air.  Each  room  or 
fireplace  for  gas  or  coal  should  have  its 


Fia.  111.— ROUND  AND  SQUARE  FLUE 
LININGS. 


own  flue,  as  it  has  been  found  they  will 
not  draw  properly  if  carried  into  each 
other  at  any  point.  At  Fig.  110,  I  illus- 
trate the  elevation  of  the  chimney 
breast  and  flues  which  is  given  to  the 
bricklayer  with  the  set  of  plans  furnished 
by  the  architect,  to  enable  the  bricklayer 
to  build  the  chimneys  from  story  to  story 
as  the  walls  of  the  structure  are  laid  up. 
The  direction  of  the  flues,  their  positions 
in  the  breasts,  and  offsets  at  each  story, 
are  here  clearly  defined,  thus  enabling  the 
bricklayer  to  keep  the  several  lines  »s  de- 
signed. Fig.  Ill  shows  the  different  forms 
of  flue  lining  or  pipes  at  present  in  use. 
They  are  from  20  to  30  inches  long  and 
of  the  following  dimensions  of  sectional 
area,  round,  square  or  buckeye,  with 
corners  slightly  rounded  as  desired: 


r. 


FIG.   112. 

FLUE  LINING. 

Round — (Without  sockets) — Inside 
measure. 

6  ins.         9  ins.        15  ins.        21  ins. 

7  "          10   "  18    "  24   " 

8  "          12   "  20    " 

Openings  4  times  price  of  1  ft.  straight 
pipe. 


60 


BRICKLAYING. 


Square — Outside  measure. 

4ix8Hns.     ?ix7*  ins.    13x13  ins. 
4^x13   *•       8^x8*     '       13x18   " 
4|xl8   "       8|xl3    "       18x18    " 
6  x!2   i{       8jxl8   " 
Openings  3  times  price  of  1  ft.  of  pipe. 

Smaller  sizes  for  gas  stove  flues  are 
now  made  and  sold  by  all  dealers  in 
masons'  materials. 

The  square  with  rounded  corners  is 
the  most  desirable  for  square  flues,  as 
the  soot  does  not  accumulate  in  the  cor- 
ners and  clog  the  conduit.  Parging  or 
pla°tering  flues  without  linings  should 
never  be  done,  as  it  is  liable  to  bake 
hard  and  drop  off,  thus  forming  crev- 
ices. All  joints  of  the  interiors  of  flue 
shafts  should  be  struck  smooth. 

Care  also  should  be  taken  when  gath- 
ering over  or  corbelling  over  for  fire- 
places, as  they  diminish  to  the  width  of 
the  flue.  The  curve  should  be  easy  and 
not  have  space  enough  left  in  the  throat 
of  the  flue  for  air  to  lodge.  Every  flue 
to  draw  well  should  be  built  the  same 
size  from  bottom  to  top,  or  a  little 
smaller  towards  the  top.  have  no  sudden 
bends,  and  a  smooth  interior  surface. 

All  flue  linings  should  invariably  be 
carried  at  least  a  foot  above  the  level  of 
the  top  of  the  roof  beams,  and  all  chim- 
nevs  carried  above  the  highest  of  the 
roofs  and  buildings  in  close  proximity, 
to  avoid  the  possibility  of  down  draft, 
which  is  caused  by  the  wind  ricochet- 
ting  against  th«  surface  of  the  highest 
chimney;  also  all  chimneys  should  be 
coped  with  stone,  terra  cotta  or  iron,  as 
shown  at  Fig.  112.  Furnace  flues,  or 
those  designed  to  sustain  great  heats, 
are  usually  of  larger  sectional  area,  and 
should  be  lined  up  with  firebrick  20  or 
25  feet  from  the  mouth  or  intake. 

Not  less  than  eight  inches  of  brick- 
work is  necessary  between  smoke  flues 
and  wooden  brains  to  obviate  all  possi- 
bility of  the  beams  igniting  and  causing 
a  fire  between  them. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ANCHORING,  BRACING  AND  FURRING 
BRICK  WALLS. 

Concerning  the  bracing  of  wall*  after 

they  are  laid  up  to  the  required  level  of 

,he  tier  of  beams  above,  I  would  state 

hat  the  methods  generally  followed  are 


For  Side  Walls  or  Ends 
of  Beams. 


For  Fronts  or  Rears. 


For  Party  or  Intermediate 
Walls. 


For  Anchoring  Stone  Ashlars 
into  Brick  Walls. 


FIG.  118.— ANCHORS. 

SIZES  OF  WROUGHT  IRON  BUILDING 
ANCHORS. 

Side. 

1    in.    xiin.  li  ins  x  f  in. 

li  ins.  x  i  "  li    '•    x  i   " 

li   "     xf  "  2      '•    xi   " 

H   "     xi  " 

Watt  or  hook. 

1    in.    xiin.  liins.  xf  in. 

liins.  xi  •«  li    "    xi    " 

H   "     xf  "  2      '«    xi   " 

li    "     xi  " 

Strap. 

liins.  xiin.  li  ins.  x  i  in. 

li  "    xf  "  2     "    xf  «• 

li  "    xi  "  2     "    xi  •' 

li   "    xf .'» 

Length:  12  in.,  14  in.,  16  in.,  18  in., 
20  in,,  24  in.,  30  in.,  and  36  in. 


either  to  build  2  foot  strips  of  2x4  slud- 
ding  into  the  wall  at  about  two-thirds 
of  its  height  between  stories  and  to 
these  to  nail  scantling  or  planks,  placed 
diagonally  against  the  inside  face  of  the 
wall,  which  are  braced  and  nailed  to 
the  floor  beams  below.  These  should  be 
spaced  not  over  10  feet  apart  and  be 
made  solid  and  stable  to  keep  the  green 
walls  from  being  jarred  while  the  beams 
are  being  set,  or  dangerously  vibrated 
by  the  springing  of  the  hod-hoisting 
machine.  Twelve-inch  walls,  and  some- 
times walls  of  greater  thickness,  should 
be  braced  while  the  mortar  is  soft,  by 
placing  plank  against  them  every  ten 
feet  and  shoring  the  plank  from  the 
floor  beams.  This  bracing  is  particular- 
ly important  where  newly  built  walls 
without  openings  are  exposed  to  the 
wind. 


BRICKLAYING. 


61 


For  the  same  reasons,  a  centre  line 
of  temporary  fore  and  aft  partitions 
should  be  inserted  before  the  hod  hoist- 
ing machine  starts  running,  or  the 
laborers  commence  carrying  stuff  across 
the  floor  beams  from  the  machine,  as 
both  are  likely  to  spring  the  walls  to  a 
bulge,  force  them  out  of  plumb,  or  start 
the  joints. 

As  to  the  methods  of  anchoring  brick 
walls,  or  securing  them  to  the  beams 
and  girders,  there  is  no  difference  of 
opinion  among  experts  about  its  im- 
portance in  maintaining  the  stability 
and  safety  of  brick  walls,  so  on  this 
account  I  here  give  the  best  modern 
practice  now  prevailing  in  this  import- 
ant detail. 


y 


Fia.  114. — WALL  ANCHORS  APPLIED. 

Fig.  113  of  the  engravings  shows  the 
anchors  mostly  employed  with  their  va- 
rious applications  and  sizes,  and  Fig. 
114  the  practcal  work  which  they  do  in 
holding  the  walls  of  a  building  to- 
gether. X,  Fig.  114,  represents  part  of 
the  first  floor  tier  of  iron  or  steel  beams 
of  an  apartment  or  dwelling  house,  set 
on  cast  iron  templets  on  a  cellar 
or  basement  wall,  and  two  styles  of 
anchors,  oue  being  a  pin  anchor,  and 
one  a  strap  anchor,  bolted  to  the  web  of 
the  beam;  the  strap  anchor  is  more 
expensive  than  the  pin,  but  it  has  a 
better  holding,  and  allows  the  beams  to 
be  moved  at  any  time  without  injuring 
the  wall. 

Y  shows  a  form  of  anchor  employed 
in  the  western  States,  but  the  use  of  the 


FIG.  115.— SECTION  OF  WALL  AND 
ANCHORED  BEAMS. 


FIG.   116.— 12  AND  8-iN.  WALLS 
ANCHORED. 


BRICKLAYING. 


wooden  strip  built  in  the  wall  is  obso- 
lete and  not  good  practice,  as  it  shrinks 
and  rots. 

Z  in  the  same  engraving  shows  how 
strap  anchors  are  nailed  to  abutting 
floor  beams. 

In  order  to  give  the  reader  a  fuller  ex- 
planation of  the  necessity  of  thoroughly 
tying  side  walls  as  they  are  built.  I  would 
refer  him  to  the  section  of  a  side  wall, 
Fig.  1 15,  where  a  wall  steps  off  from  16  to 


ElO.   9.U-PLAN  OF  FLOORS  SHOWIKO  METHOD  OF  ANCHpRI^^  FRONT   AND) 

REAH  WALLS  •BO>Bi£A\r.<f        ^     ' 

FIG.  117 — PLAN  OF  FLOORS  SHOWING 
METHOD  OF  ANCHORING  FRONT  AND 
REAR  WALLS  TO  BEAM. 

12  inches  at  th«  tier  of  floor  beams,  with 
the  uper  and  lower  courses  at  top  and 
bottom  of  beams  projecting  1£  inches  to 
form  a  fire  stop  above  the  wooden  wall 


furring.  Here  the  anchor  only  goes  4 
inches  into  the  12-inch  wall,  but  has  8 
inches  in  the  16  inch  wall.  All  anchors 
should  have  at  least  8  inches  in  walls  of 
12  inches  or  over  to  make  a  safe  wall; 
they  should  be  plac  >d  if  possible  on  every 
4th  beam,  and  not  over  6  feet  apart  and 
be  well  nailed  to  beams  and  brickwork 


FIG.  118— ANCHOR  FOR  STEEL  BEAMS. 

made  good  against  the  cross  bar,  also  T 
and  strap  anchors  where  they  occur  on 
side  party  and  intermediate  walls  on 
abutting  beams  should  be  nailed  on  the 


1 

1 

1                 1 

1         1 

1         1         1                 1 

1 

III                1 

1        1 

1         1         1                 1 

'                                        s!S^haj!^BLs*s«ihs»«ai 

—  L  — 

r  =n= 

— 

6  3E? 

— 

FIG.  119— HOLLOW  BRICK  OR  POROUS  TERRA  COTTA  FURRING. 


BRICKLAYING. 


Fia.  120 — COMMON  METHOD  OF  FIRE- 
PROOFING  PARTITIONS. 

same  line  of  beams.  Fig.  116  is  the  sec- 
tion of  a  12  and  8-inch  wall  similarly 
anchored. 

Coming  now  to  the  subject  of  securing 
front  walls  laid  up  with  face  brickwork 
I  would  draw  attention  to  the  way  this 
is  done  by  referring  to  Fig.  117  where  the 
positions  of  the  anchors  are  designated, 
as  they  hook  over  the  fourth  beam  back 
from  the  front.  These  anchors  are  spe- 


cially made  long  to  reach  back  over  at 
least  4  or  5  beams  and  are  of  thicker  and 
wider  iron  than  those  represented  in  Fig. 
113.  The  beams  are  prevented  from 
springing  by  inserting  and  nailing  a 
hardwood  strip  placed  diagonally  and 
let  flush  into  the  top  of  the  floor  beams. 

Fig.  118  of  the  illustrations  gives  the 
form  of  hook  anchor  mostly  used  to  an- 
chor walls  to  the  beams  and  girders  of 
steel  frames  used  in  construction  of  high 
buildings.  They  are  made  long  or  short 
as  desired.  For  terra  cotta,  stone,  ashlar 
columns  or  other  special  architectural 
details,  special  anchors  are  usually  made 
to  meet  special  requirements,  but  the 
inside  end  is  generally  wrought  with  a 
hook  to  hook  over  the  top  or  bottom 
flange  of  the  beams  or  girders  as  speci- 
fied. 

Fig  120  illustrates  the  simplest  mod- 
ern method  in  use  for  preventing  fire 
from  traveling  up  from  one  line  of  lath 
and  plaster  partition  to  that  directly  o^er 
it,  above  the  tier  of  beams  The  scheme  is 
to  fill  in  the  spaces  between  the  beams 
with  brick  and  mortar,  in  the  way  rep- 
resented in  the  engraving,  the  brick 
being  laid  on  the  top  plate  of  the  parti- 
tion below.  When  it  is  necessary  to 
make  a  partition  entirely  fireproof,  hor- 
izontal pieces  of  bridging  are  inserted, 
about  two  or  three  rows  in  the  entire 
height,  and  on  these  pieces  the  bricks 
are  laid,  breaking  joint  in  the  bond,  so 
as  to  stiffen  the  whole  partition,  or  the 


3X6X12 
3  x  8  x  12 


4X8X  12 

4x8x12 


FIG.  121— HOLLOW  BRICK  FOR  PARTITIONS. 


BRICKLAYING. 


spaces  are  filled  up  with  mineral  wool. 
When  the  partition  is  constructed  of 
studding  set  on  flat  or  only  2^  inches 
thick,  the  bricks  are  laid  on  the  top  of 
each  other,  edge  to  edge. 


CHAPTER  X. 


GENERAL,  IMPORTANT  AND  MISCELLANE- 
OUS DETAILS  OF  BRICKWORK. 


FlREPROOFINQ  WOOD  FLOORS,  PARTI- 
TIONS AND  DOORS. 

In  connection  with  floors  I  would  here 
draw  attention  to  the  method  of  fire- 
proofing,  or  deafening  floors,  which 
consists  of  a  series  of  wood  cleats  or 
strips  nailed  about  four  inches  down 
on  each  side  of  the  floor  beams.  On 
these  strips  -g-  inch  or  1-inch  boards 
are  placed  and  nailed,  so  as  to  form 
a  shell  or  pocket  between  the  floor  and 
ceiling  below.  These  pockets  are  after- 
wards filled  in  with  a  concrete  made 
of  ashes  and  cement,  thus  rendering 
the  floor  both  fire  and  sound  proof. 
The  writer  believes,  however,  that  the 
water  in  the  concrete  is  absorbed  by  the 
pores  of  the  wood,  and  after  a  time  a 
dry-rot  ensues  which  is  su  e  to  injure 
the  wood,  so  as  to  impair  its  strength 
and  render  it  unsafe.  Care,  then, 
should  be  taken  not  to  put  in  the  con- 
crete slimy  or  very  wet. 

Hard  and  porous  Furring  Blocks  are 
sold,  as  Fig  121,  1^x12x12  and  2x12x12. 
Haverstraw  size  Hollow  Brick  in  stock 
for  furring  or  lining  outside  walls,  are 
obtainable  likewise.  In  connection 
with  the  last  I  might  quote  from  a 
paper  presented  before  a  recent  meet- 
ing of  the  Iowa  Tile  and  Brick  Asso- 
ciation, by  L.  W.  Denison,  some  very 
interesting  points  being  made  relative 
to  the  advantages  of  hollow  brick. 
Among  other  things  the  author  said : 

' '  The  airspace  makes  a  dry  frost  proof 
wall.  The  plaster  is  applied  direct  to 
the  brick,  thus  cutting  off  all  expense 
of  lathing.  They  take  one-third  less 
mortar  than  common  brick.  In  a 
12-inch  wall  we  have  three  separate  air 
spaces  as  a  non  conductor  of  heat  and 
cold.  The  hollow  brick  at  common 
brick  measure  are  much  lighter,  weigh- 
ing only  2.6'  pounds,  while  our  com- 
mon brick  weigh  4£  pounds;  thus  they 
have  advantages  over  common  brick  in 
freiarht,  hauling,  handling  and  hoisting 
to  place  in  the  building.  Fifty  per  cent, 
more  wall  can  be  laid  per  day  of  hollow 
br''ck  than  of  common  brick!"  See  Fig 
119. 


T 


HE  following  is  a  list  of  many  of 

the  tools  and  materials  required 

by  the  mason  and  bricklayer: 

Hard  Brick,  Dirt  removed, 

Front  Brick,  Asphalt,  Tar, 

Glazed  or  Tile  Scaffolding  and 

Brick,  Horses, 

Special  Brick,  Ladders, 

Lime,  Cement,  Hose, 

Portland  Cement,  Water  Pails, 

White  Sand,  Hoes, 

Brown  Sand,  Shovels,  Spades, 

Stone,   Slates,  Pickaxes, 

Gravel,  Crowbars, 

Brick  Mortar,  Pulley  Blocks, 

Scratch  Mortar,  Rope, 

Brown  Mortar,  Hod  Hoister, 

White  Mortar,  Engineer, 

Plaster,  Lath,  Wheelbarrows, 

Hair,  Nails,  Hand-barrows, 

Wire  Lath  and  Hods. 

Staples,  Tampers  or  Ram 
Old  materials,  mers. 

Every  foreman  should  make  out  this  list,  and 
cheek  off  and  keep  count  as  he  needs  and  uses 
supplies,  etc. 


FIG.  122. 

Storage  warehouses  and  other  fire- 
proof buildings  have  their  windows 
equipped  with  outside  folding  iron  shut- 
ters to  prevent  fire  from  spreading 


BRICKLAYING. 


65 


from  buildings.  These  shutters  are 
hung  on  cast  iron  eyes  the  size  of  a 
brick,  which  are  builc  into  the  reveals 
in  the  way  represented  in  the  engraving. 


Fig .  123  illustrates  how  a  damp  course 
is  built  on  top  of  the  foundation  walls 
to  prevent  cold  and  damp  air  from  going 


FIG.  123. 

up  into  the  floor  and  rooms  on  the  first 
story.  Tnis  method  is  valuable,  and 
applicable  to  frame  houses. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BAKE  OVENS. 


Regarding  this  important  part  of  a 
bricklayer's  art,  I  would  refer  the  reader 
to  the  illustration  Fig.  124,  which  gives 
a  cross  section  of  a  good  oven  which  I 
have  seen  constructed, 

As  will  be  seen  it  is  made  up  of  3 
main  walls  or  sides,  namely,  th«j  front 
and  two  sides,  the  fourth  side  or  back 
being  the  side  wall  of  the  building  con- 
taining the  flue.  The  side  walls  were 
very  thick,  that  on  the  left  16  inches 
and  on  the  right  containing  the  flue  24 
inches.  The  base  or  footing  was  of  con- 
crete. The  space  inside  the  walls  was 
first  filled  in  with  coarse  sand  or  gravel, 
topped  out  with  a  layer  of  concrete,  on 
winch  the  tire  clay  floor  tile  were 
bedded,  as  seen  in  the  engraving.  The 
tie  rods  and  strengthening  plates  having 
been  set,  the  oven  chamber  space  was 
filled  in  with  dry  sand,  which  being 
thoroughly  stamped  down  was  shaped 
on  top  to  the.  curve  of  the  firebrick  arch 
or  cro*rn,  which  was  turned  on  this 
sand  centre,  Fig.  124. 

A  wooden  centre  would  also  answer 
this  purpose,  and  many  oven  crowns  are 
done  this  way,  as  the  centre  is  easily 
burnt  out  when  the  arch  is  set,  whereas 
the  sand  centre  will  require  to  be  dug 
out  with  a  hoe.  The  arch  is  somewhat 
of  an  elliptic  curve  with  the  bricks  set 
on  end  in  a  plaster  of  paris  grout.  When 
all  laid,  the  whole  top  surface  or  extra- 


Fia.  124. 


66 


BRICKLAYING. 


dos  is  thickly  coated  over  with  a  layer 
of  cement.  On  top  of  this  sand  and  gravel 
was  filled  in  with  a  top  dressing  of  soft 
clay  and  finished  with  a  coat  of  cement 
and  asphalt,  the  whole  being  topped  out 
with  fire  brick  on  flat  bedded  in  cement. 
The  dotted  lines  from  A  to  B  show  the 
direction  of  the  heat,  the  fire  box  being 
set  at  A  and  so  situated  that  the  heat 
traveled  from  A  to  the  back  and  filled 
the  entire  oven  chamber,  afterwards 
passing  up  into  the  intake  of  the  flue  B 
and  thence  up  the  flue  of  the  smoke 
stack.  When  ovens  are  built  in  the 
ground,  as  under  sidewalks  or  on  the 
rears  of  houses, the  tie  rods  and  plates  are 
omitted,  as  the  side  walls  cannot  spread 
under  thrust  of  the  crown  arch.  The 
oven  section  shown  in  Fig  124  was 
built  on  the  floor,  and  having  no  side 
resistance,  needed  the  plates  and  rods. 


LINING  BOILERS. 

This  is  another  matter  which  demands 
the  skill  of  the  bricklayer,  but  as  there 
is  no  srecial  detail  requisite  in  addition 
to  those  already  described,  it  needs  no 
special  description. 


BRICKLAYERS'  SCAFFOLDS  AND  THEIR 
CONSTRUCTION. 

f'The  great  increase  in  the  height  of 
buildings,  and  the  material  methods  of 
construction,  have  so  changed  the 
methods  of  scaffolding  in  modern  build- 


ings  that  a  short  dissertation  on  the 
methods  now  employed  may  prove  of 
service. 

Fig.  125  of  the  illustrations  shows  a 
very  convenient  form  of  scaffold  which 
can  be  adopted  when  doing  any  kind  of 
work  on  the  outside  walls  of  a  brick  or 
stone  building,  and  it  is  so  simple  as  to 
be  rapidly  and  easily  put  together. 
Reference  to  Figs.  125  ar  d  126  will  show 
that  it  consists  of  an  ordinal  y  2x8,  2x10, 
or  2x12  sound  spruce  beam  projected  out 
through  each  window  opening  about 
half  or  one-third  of  its  length,  with  its 
bottom  edge  resting  on  the  sill  of  the 
window  frame.  The  beam  is  kept  from 
tipping  by  a  wrought  iron  disconnecting 
double  hook  in  two  halves,  the  bottom 
hooking  under  a  floor  beam  and  the  top 
over  the  inside  end  of  the  scaffold  beam 
or  plank.  This  disconnecting  hook  is 
made  as  represented  in  Fig.  126,  of  £ 
inch  by  2  inch  wrought  iron  and  bolted 
together  with  one  or  two  -f  bolts,  as  seen 
in  the  engraving.  A,  Fig.  12-e>,  is  the 
end  view  of  the  floor  beam,  and  C,  one 
bolt.  E  is  a  bolt  placed  under  the  bottom 
edge  of  the  plank  to  prevent  its  dropping 
out  of  the  hook.  F  is  the  scaffolding 
planks  placed  on  the  top  edge  out  side 
the  wall  and  G  is  the  cross  section  of  a 
piece  of  2x4  placed  and  nailed  so  as  to 
wedge  the  cantilever  beam  against  one 
side  of  the  window  frame. 

This  scaffold  may  be  constructed  with- 
out the  wrought  iron  hock  in  the  mann  er 
which  is  shown  at  the  dotted  line.  B  is 
a  stout  piece  to  fit  over  of  3x6  inch 
spruce  timber  notched  out  or  nailed  to 


FIG.  125. 


BRICKLAYING. 


67 


the  bottom  edges  of  two  floor  beams  and 
on  ea^h  side  of  this  two  boards  are 
nailed,  being  also  nailed  to  the  side  of 
the  plank  above,  thus  holding  it  firmly 
in  place.  This  is  an  exceedingly  simple 
and  strong  form  of  cantilever  scaffold, 
but  not  so  strong  or  reliable  as  the  hook. 
In  closing  this  description  I  would  state 
that  this  form  of  cantilevering  out  for 
scaffolds  is  in  daily  use  in  most  of  the 


Fig.  128  conveys,  better  than  any 
written  description,  the  method  termed 
"CORBELLING  OUT,"  or  in  other  words 
the  method  employed  by  bricklayers  in 
projecting  or  bracketing  out  brickwork 
beyond  the  face  of  the  wall.  The  chim- 
ney here  depicted  is  corbelled  out  10 
inches  outside  the  face  line  of  the  gable 
by  1  inch  projections  on  each  course. 


qp 


FIG.  125. 


cities  above  the  first,  second  and  third 
stories,  especially  on  the  very  high 
buildings,  and  as  its  safety  and  car- 
rying capacity  depend  entirely  on 
the  tensile  strength  of  the  bearing 
plank,  the  greatest  of  care  should  be 
taken  to  only  place  the  soundest  of  tim- 
bers in  this  important  position ,  lest  one 
should  happen  to  break  and  cause  a 
fearful  fall. 

Self-supporting  stationary  scaffolds 
should  be  formed  of  sound  uprights  and 
diagonal  bracing  for  uprights  3x3, 
3x4,  4x4,  or  6x6  inch  square  spruce  tim- 
bers, sizes  according  to  the  height,  or 
the  usual  Pole  and  Putlog  Scaffold  may 


J LJ 


J_J 


Fia.  128. 


127, 


be  built  When  it  is  desired  to  raise 
higher,  the  mason's  horse.  Fig.  127,  or  a 
series  of  them,  may  be  employed. 


Great  care  must  be  used  to  get  the^bot- 
torn  courses  properly  bonded  into  the 
wall  proper.  ~_ 

The  weight  of  wall  per  [foot  in  height 
of  wall  is  as  follows: 
8-in.  brick  wall,  weight  per  ft.     77  Ibs. 
"      115     " 
"      153     " 
"      192     " 
"      230     '• 
57  pounds 
114 

"    13      "  170 

Granite      "    per  foot,  166        " 

White  marble,  "      "  168        " 

If  this  weight  is  not  equally  distrib- 
uted, double  it. 

Should  it  sustain  a  chimney  or  other 
weight,  add  the  additional  weight  in  all. 
cases. 

Deduct  for  windows  only  half  weight ; 
that  is,  take  out  of  the  weight  imposed 


12 
16 

20          "          •'          " 
24 

Brown  stone,  4  inches 
"      8       •' 


68 


BRICKLAYING. 


on  beam,  lintel  or  girder,  but  half  the 
actual  space  which  the  windows  will 
occupy. 

NOTE. — Should  a  pier  rest  on  or  about 
the  middle  of  beam,  lintel  or  girder,  the 
weight  must  not  be  considered  to  be 
equally  distributed.  In  computing  the 
weight  of  a  brick  arch,  estimate  a  4-inch 
arch  as  equal  in  weight  to  an  8-inch 
thick  wall,  and  an  8  inch  thick  arch  as 
equal  in  weight  to  a  12-inch  thick  wall, 
on  a  straight  line.  This  additional 
weight  is  to  make  allowance  for  the 
weight  of  material  required  to  fill  up 
on  a  level  with  the  crown  of  the  arch. 
Make  allowance  for  any  material  placed 
above  the  crown  of  the  arch. 

Bricks  lying  in  uncovered  piles  on  the 
street  or  lot  in  front  of  or  adjacent  to 
a  building,  which  have  been  exposed  to 
the  heavy  rains  of  one,  two  or  more 
days'  duration,  should  not  be  used  or 
laid  in  walls  until  dried  by  exposure  to 
the  dry  wind  and  sun.  If  laid  too  wet 
the  wall  is  liable  to  slide  in  the  joints. 


To  CONSTRUCT  AN  ECONOMICAL  FIRE- 
PROOF   BRICK  FLOOR   ARCH 
WITH  A  SMOOTH  SOFFIT. 

f^-This  is  done  by  covering  the  wood 
centre,  which  must  have  its  battens  set 
close  together,  with  paper  which  is 
coated  on  its  upper  side  with  a  good  coat 
of  oil.  On  this  bricks,  which  can  be  of 
any  size,  are  laid  dry  on  edge,  which 
being  done  the  joints  are  filled  in  with  a 
thin  cement  grout  thoroughly  run  in  the 
joints  so  that  it  will  work  under  the 
bottom  edges  of  the  brick  onto  the 
paper.  When  the  paper  and  centre  are 
removed  the  soffits  will  be  found  smooth 
and  clean,  ready  for  paint  or  white- 
wash. 


ROPES. 

Table  showing  what  weights  hemp  rope 
will  bear  with  safety. 


1  in 
U 
U 
If 

2 

»i 

2* 

a* 

ch.    200    3  im 
312.5  3± 
450   3| 
612.5  3f 
890   4 
1012.5  5 
1250   6 
1512.5 

;h:   18  0 
2112.5 
2450 
2812.5 
3200 
5000 
72CO 

rope  is  6,400  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 
Its  practical  value  not  more  than  one- 
half  this  strain.  Before  breaking  it 
stretches  from  one-fifth  to  one-seventh, 
and  its  diameter  diminishes  one  fourth 
to  one-seventh.  The  strength  of  ma- 
nila  is  about  one  half  that  of  hemp. 
White  ropes  are  one-third  more  dura- 
ble. 


To  find  the  number  of  bricks  in  a  wall, 
first  ascertain  the  number  of  square  feet 
of  surface,  and  then  multiply  by  7  for  a 
4  inch  wall,  by  15  for  an  8-inch  wall,  by 
23  for  a  12 -inch  wall,  and  by  30  for  a  16- 
inch  wall. 


WOOD  TACKLE  BLOCKS. 

Inside  iron    strapped,  iron  hooks,  lig- 
nurnvitse  or  iron  sheaves. 

4  inch  shell,  for  %  inch  rope. 

5  "        "         "  i 

6  "         "         '•   f 


NOTE. — A  square  inch  of  hemp  fibers 
will  support  a  weight  of  9,200  pounds. 
The  maximum  strength  of  a  good  hemp 


FIG.  129. 
SWINGING  SCAFFOLD  AND  TACKLE  BLOCKS, 


BRICKLAYING. 


The  following  number  of  brick  are 
allowed  for  each  square  foot  of  face  of 
wall  in  measuring  brickwork  when  laid 
by  the  thousand  by  the  mason  : 


Thickness  of  wall. 

4  inches. . 

8 

12 
16 
20 
24 
28 
32 
36 


No.  brick. 


42 


15 

22$ 

30 


60 

67i 

75 


Cubic  yard  =  600  brick  in  wall. 

Perch  (22  cubic  feet)  =  550  brick  in 
wall. 

To  pave  one  square  yard  on  flat  re- 
quires 48  brick. 

To  pave  one  square  yard  on  edge  re- 
quires 68  brick. 

When  washing  down  brickwork  with 
cement  the  old  joints  should  be  cut  out 
to  give  a  keying  for  cement  about  i-inch 
deep. 

Hard    bricks    set    in    cement   and  3 


A  box  eight  by  eight  inches  square, 
and  eight  inches  deep,  will  contain  a 
peck. 

A  box  eight  by  'eight  inches  square, 
and  four  and  one  eighth  inches  deep, 
will  contain  one  gallon. 

A  box  four  by  eight  inches  square, 
and  four  and  one  eigth  inches  deep, 
will  contain  a  half  gallon. 

A  box  four  by  four  inches  square,  and 
four  and  one  fourth  inches  deep,  will 
contain  a  quart, 

NOTE. — A  cubical  box  is  one  whose 
length,  breadth  and  depth  are  equal. 

A  cubic  yard  of  mortar  requires  SOT  en 
bushels  of  gray  lime  and  twenty  three 
bushels  of  sand.  One-third  bulk  of 
water  in  each  case. 


The  following  strengths  of  masonry 
material  are  given  in  the  new  Building 
Code  of  New  York  : 

Lbs.  per 

^  /r»     ^i      ^\  sq' 

C°««f1;  ^^Left  230 

Con««t«      L^a^L^*?  208 

" 


r  squa^  equal  cement  a  .  gand)  3  . 

stone,  4  ..................  125 

SUSTAINING  POWER  OF  SOILS.  Concrete       Rosendale,      or 

Rock,  200  to  205  tons  per  square  foot.  equal,  cement,  1;  sand,  2; 

Gravel,               8      "       "         "          "  stone,  5  .................. 

Sand,                   4      "       "        •*          "  Rubble  stonework   in  Port- 

Clay,'                   4      "       "        "          "  land  cement  mortar  ......                140 

Soft  Clay,           1      "       "        "          "  Rubble  stonework  in  Rosen- 

__  dale  cement  mortar  .......                Ill 

Rubble    stonework    in  lime 

For  mixing  concretes  or  mortars  the  and  cement  mortar  .......                  97 

following  will  prove  useful:  Rubble    stonework    in    lime 

CAPACITY  OF  BOXES,  BINS,  ETC.  mortar  ..........  ,  .........                 70 

Will  contain  Brickwork  in   Portland    ce- 

Length.    Breadth     Depth.                       Bushels.  ment    mOrtar:    cement,    1; 

san(j    3  ..........  250 

Si*  •'•?!}•      iJJ'  Brickwork  in'RosendaleV  or 

n  *i  '     *  *!'       o  iT  o  •  equal,  cement  mortar:  ce- 

Qf""6f-      If                           lm  ment:i;sand,3  ..........                208 

1  2  ft  "If/      '  I  £'  Brickwork  in  lime  and  ce- 

ment mortar:   cement,  1; 

-  lime,  1;  sand,   6  ......... 

A  box  four  feet  eight  inches  long,  two  Brickwork  in  lime  mortar: 

feet  four  inches  wide,  and  two  feet  four  lime,  1  ;  sand,  4  ........... 

inches  in    depth,  will  contain  twenty  Granites  (according  to  test)!  ,000  to  2,  40 

bushels.  Greenwich  stone  ...........             1,200 

A  box  twenty-four  inches  by  sixteen  Gneiss  (New  York  City)  ----             1,300 

inches  square,  and  twenty-eight  inches  Limestones     (according     to 

deep,  will  contain  a  barrel.  test)  ......................  700  to  2.300 

A  box  twenty-six  by  fifteen  and  a  half  Marbles  (according  to  test).  .600  to  1,200 

inches  square,   and   eight  inches  deep,  Sandstones     (according     to 

will  contain  a  bushel.  test)  .....................  400  to  1,600 

A  box  twelve  inches  by  eleven  and  a  Bluestone.  North   River....             2,00 

half  inches  square,    and    nine    inches  Brick  (Haverstraw,  flatwise) 

deep,  will  contain  a  half  bushel.  Slate  ........................             1,000 


70 


BRICKLAYING. 


As  to  the  formation  and  the  founda- 
tion footings,  I  would  here  state  that 
there  is  never,  to  my  mind,  sufficient 
care  devoted  to  this  most  important  de- 
tail, and  I  would  like  the  following  sim- 
ple rules  to  be  followed : 

For  sand  and  gravel  the  best  footing 
is  good  base  stone,  6  or  8  inches  thick, 
laid  edge  to  edge.  For  the  ordinary 
18  or  20-inch  walls  of  a  frame  house, 
these  should  be  from  8  to  12  inches 
thick.  For  a  soft  clay  mud  or  sand  and 
mud  bottom,  Portland  cement  concrete. 
For  very  soft  mud,  piles  should  first  be 
driven,  spaced  about  30  inches  on  cen- 
ters, and  filled  in  on  top  with  12  inches 
of  concrete,  For  rock  the  surface  of  the 
rock  shouM  first  be  leveled  off,  and  then 
the  holes  filled  in  level  with  a  thick  con- 
crete. All  footings  under  piers  and 
posts  should  be  similarly  treated.  All 
cellar  walls  should,  if  below  the  ground 
level,  be  laid  in  cement  mortar.  No- 
thing is  so  destructive  to  the  frame  of  a 
building  as  a  damp  cellar,  and,  there- 
fore, the  floors  of  all  cellars  of  frame 
houses  should  be  concreted. 


CEMENTS. 

All  cements  on  the  street  in  barrels 
should  be  kept  well  covered  with  planks 
to  prevent  its  being  injured  by  possible 
rains. 

The  practical  difference  between  a 
Rosendale  and  a  Portland  cement  is  this : 
Rosendale  is  a  quick  setting  cement, 
and  the  Portland  is  a  slow  setting  ce- 
ment, the  usual  proportion  being  two  of 
sand  and  one  of  cement.  Sand  is  disin- 
tegrated sandstone;  gravel  is  disinte- 
grated rock;  concrete  ie  a  mixture  of 
stone,  sand  and  cement,  the  proportion 
being  two  of  sand,  one  of  cement  and 
five  of  broken  stone.  In  making  con- 
nection with  old  concrete  the  old  work 
should  be  broken,  the  dust  removed  and 
moistened  with  water. 

Directions  for  using  Superfine  Ce- 
•mo.nt  — For  ordinary  hard  finish,  mix 
equal  parts  of  best  lime  putty  and  Su- 
perfine Windsor  cement .  For  polished 
surf  ace,mix  two  thirds  superfine  cement 
and  one-third  best  white  lime  putty  and 
trowel  to  smooth  surface.  Apply  pow- 
dered soapstone  lightly  and  quickly  one 
hour  thereafter  with  smooth  cotton 
cloth,  waste,  or  old  silk.  Under  no  cir- 
cumstances should  the  walls  be  finished 
until  the  browning  is  thoroughly  dry. 
This  cement  will  cover  from  150  to  170 
square  yards  per  barrel. 

Concrete,  on  top  of  Terra  Cotta 
Arches — One  part  Atlas  cement,  one 


part  clean  sharp  sand,  seven  or  eight 
parts  ashes  in  bulk ;  mixed  dry,  and  then 
wet  and  turned  over. 

Brickwork  per  cubic  foot  weighs  125 
pounds;  Indiana  limestone  masonry 
weighs  168  pounds;  concrete  weighs  485 
pounds. 

Strength  of  Concrete  and  Stone  Ma- 
sonry.— Concrete  will  carry  5  to  15  tons 
per  square  foot;  rubble  will  carry  10  to 
15  tons  per  square  foot:  limestone  ash- 
lar will  carry  20  tons  per  square  foot; 
granite  ashlar  will  carry  30  tons  per 
square  foot. 


SAND. 

Clean  Sand  will  not  soil  the  hands 
when  rubbed  upon  them,  and  the  pres- 
ence of  salt  ean  be  detected  by  its  taste. 

Sand  is  argillaceous,  siliceous  or  cal- 
careous, according  to  its  composition. 
Its  use  is  to  prevent  excessive  shrinking 
and  to  save  cost  of  lime  or  cement.  Or- 
dinarily it  is  not  acted  upon  by  lime,  its 
presence  in  mortar  being  mechanical, 
and  with  hydraulic  limes  and  cement  it 
weakens  the  mortar. 

It  is  imperative  that  sand  should  be 
perfectly  clean,  free  from  all  impurities, 
and  of  a  sharp  or  angular  structure. 
Within  moderate  limits,  size  of  grain 
does  not  affect  the  strength  of  mortar; 
preference  should  be  given  to  coarse 
calcareous  sand,  as  it  is  preferable  to 
siliceous. 

The  best  sharp  sands  have  diamond 
shaped  particles.  Quick  sands  have 
round  particles. 


In  order  to  protect  iron  and  steel  from 
the  injurious  action  of  the  atmosphere  or 
in  electric  light  stations,  where  the  de- 
teriorating action  of  the  electric  fluid 
communicates  to  the  iron  and  steel  a 
disease  called  Electrolysis  the  metal  is 
enclosed  with  a  covering  of  brick,  terra 
cotta  or  porous  clay  blocks  which  are 
out  and  set  by  bricklayers.  Reference 
to  the  diagrams  in  manufacturers'  cata- 
logues will  clearly  explain  how  they  are 
placed. 

A  good  laborer  will  dump,  wet  and 
mix  from  15  to  20  barrels  of  lump  lime 
in  eight  hours. 

A  brick  on  flat  as  laid  in  the  wall  has 
two  thirds  more  strength  than  when 
laid  on  edge,  hence  the  objection  to 
"rowlocks,"  as  they  are  termed,  in 
walls  and  piers ,  but  if  a  brick  is  sup- 
ported at  both  ends,  then  it  has  more 
bearing  strength  on  edge  than  on  flat. 


BRICKLAYING. 


71 


BRICK  MANHOLES  AND  BRIOK  SEWERS. 

These  too  are  constructed  of  circular 
and  egg-shaped  sections  by  tbe  brick- 
layer, who  lays  the  brick  in  rings  or 
continuous  rowlocks  of  brick  until  the 
full  thicSne?s  is  built,  As  this  work 
involves  no  detail  which  is  not  con- 
tained in  the  methods  already  de- 
scribed, I  will  conclude  by  referring 
the  reader  to  ihe  details  of  this  form 


of  construction  contained  in  my  book, 
"  PRACTICAL  CENTRING,"  where  this 
and  other  important  subjects  in  con- 
nection with  masonry  construction  are 
treated  at  length;  also  by  recommend- 
ing all  readers  to  study  all  details  of 
brick,  terra  cotta  and  cement  manu- 
facturers, as  from  them  they  will  gain 
much  valuable  information  regarding 
moiern  masonry  construction. 


MANILA-ROPE. 
All  Manila-rope  ought  to  be  made  out  of  pure  Manila-hemp,  and  of  the 

best    quality. 
For  information  is  subjoined  the  following  estimate  of  weight: 

Size  in  diameter,  inch £        TBff        £        •£        £        f        £        1 

Weight  of  100  feet,  pounds 3         4       5*        8      15      17      25      33 

Strength  of  new  rope,  pounds 450    750     900    1700  3000  4000  5800  7000 

Price,  in  full  coils  of  1000  feet,  £  inch  and  smaller Per  pound,  $ 

Larger  than  |  inch "         "  

Price,  cut,  f  incli  and  smaller "        "          

Larger  than  f  inch "        "          

NUMBER  BRICKS  REQUIRED  TO  CONSTRUCT  ANY  BUILDING. 
(Reckoning  7  bricks  to  each  superficial  foot.) 


Superficial 


Number  of  Bricks  to  Thickness  of 


ft.  of  wall. 

4  in. 

8  in. 

12  in. 

16  in. 

20  in. 

24  in. 

1 

7 

15 

23 

30 

38 

45 

2 

15 

30 

45         60 

75 

90 

3 

23 

45 

68 

90 

113 

135 

4 

30 

60 

90 

120 

150 

180 

5 

38 

75 

113 

150 

188 

225 

6 

45 

90 

135         180 

225 

270 

7 

53 

105 

158 

210 

263 

315 

8 

60 

120 

180 

240 

300 

360 

9 

68 

135 

203 

270 

338 

405 

10 

75 

150 

225 

300 

375 

450 

20 

150 

300 

450 

600 

750 

9UO 

80 

225 

450 

675 

900 

1,125 

1,350 

40 

300 

600 

900 

1,300 

1,500 

1,800 

50 

375 

750 

1,125 

1,500 

1,875 

2,250 

60 

450 

900 

1,350 

1,800 

2,250 

2,7uO 

70 

525 

1,050 

1,575 

2,100 

2,625 

3,150 

80 

600 

1,200 

1,800 

2,400 

3,000 

3  600 

90 

675 

1,350 

2,025 

2,700 

3,375 

4,050 

100 

750 

1,500 

2.250 

3,000 

3,750 

4,500 

200 

1,500 

3,000 

4,500 

6,000 

7,500 

9  000 

300 

2,250 

4500 

6,750 

9,000 

11,250 

13,500 

400 

3,000 

6,000 

9,000 

12,000 

15,000 

18000 

500 

3,750 

7,500 

11,250 

15,000 

18  750 

22,500 

600 

4,500 

9,000 

13,500 

18,000 

22.500 

27,000 

700 

5,250 

10,500 

15,750 

21,000 

26,250 

31,500 

800 

6.000 

12,000 

18,000 

24,000 

30,000 

36,000 

900 

6,750 

13,500 

20,250 

27,000 

33,750 

40,500 

1,000 

7,500 

15,000 

23,500 

30.000 

37,500 

45,000 

72  BRICKLAYING. 

CUBIC  YARDS  OF  EARTH  IN  DITCHES  WITH,  SIDE  SLOPES  OF  ONE  FOOT  IN  TEN. 


Tint  torn  ^A7ir1tVi 

Dept 

h  in  F 

eet. 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

2  feet  

36 

0  60 

0  86 

1  15 

1  46 

1  80 

2  19 

2  59 

2  96 

2* 

44 

0  71 

1  01 

1  33 

1  68 

2  06 

2  48 

2  92 

3  33 

8 

51 

0  82 

1  16 

1  51 

1  90 

2  32 

2  80 

3  25 

3  70 

3* 

59 

0  93 

1  30 

1  70 

2  12 

2  58 

3  10 

3  58 

4  07 

4     

66 

1  04 

1  45 

1  88 

2  34 

2  84 

3  40 

3  91 

4  44 

4*    

74 

1  15 

1  60 

2  07 

2  57 

3  10 

3  70 

4  24 

4  81 

6     

81 

1  26 

1  75 

2  25 

2  80 

3  36 

4  00 

4  57 

5  18 

CARRYING  CAPACITY  OF  SEWER  PIPES. 
Gallons  per  minute. 


Size  of  Pipe. 

1  inch 
fall  per 
100  feet. 

3  inch 
fall  per 
100  feet. 

6  inch 
fall  per 
100  feet. 

1  foot 
fall  per 
100  feet. 

2  feet 
fall  per 
100  feet. 

3  feet 
fall  per 
100  feet. 

3  inch  

13 

23 

32 

46 

64 

79 

4     ... 

27 

47 

66 

93 

131 

163 

6 

75 

129 

183 

258 

364 

450 

8     

153 

265 

375 

529 

750 

923 

9 

205 

355 

503 

711 

1006 

1240 

10     

267 

463 

655 

926 

1310 

1613 

12      

422 

730 

1033 

1468 

2076 

2554 

15        

740 

1282 

1818 

2464 

3617 

4467 

18 

1168 

2022 

2860 

4045 

5704 

7047 

24 

2396 

4152 

5871 

8303 

11744 

14466 

80 

4167 

7252 

10557 

14504 

20516 

2527T 

Section  on  A  J5. 
FIG.  130.— CENTRE  FOR  HEAVY  BRICK  ARCH. 


PART   11. 


SHORING,    NEEDLING   AND    UNDERPINNING. 


CHAPTER  I. 


SHORING  AND  NEEDLING. 

IN  town  and  city  work,  as  well  as  very 
often  in  the  country,  the  builder 
finds  it  necessary  to  "shore"  or 
"  needle"  up  the  walls  of  an  old  or  a 
new  building,  and  he  is,  therefore,  in- 
terested in  knowing  how  such  work  is 
done  and  the  best  methods  in  vogue  in 
this  particular  line.  The  information 
which  follows  has  been  gathered  by  the 
author  during  a  period  of  several  years 
and  the  methods  described  represent 
current  practice  for  such  work. 

With  regard  to  the  word  "shore," 
we  find  by  reference  to  Webster's  Dic- 
tionary that  the  noun  in  its  technical 
sense  means  "  a  prop  or  timber  placed 
as  a  temporary  brace  or  support  on  the 
side  of  a  building."  The  verb  is  "to 
support  by  a  post  or  buttress;  to  prop." 
We  will,  therefore,  proceed  to  describe 
the  best  methods  of  shoring,  or  tempo- 
rarily propping  up,  walls.  Different 
walls  require  different  methods  of  shor- 
ing, according  to  the  position  and 
condition  of  the  wall  or  walls  and  the 
manner  in  which  they  must  be  sus- 
tained. This  must  be  the  first  consider- 
ation before  commencing  the  actual 
work  of  placing  the  shores.  This  fact 
beine:  determined,  it  follows  that  the 
builder  must  with  the  architect  make  a 
very  careful  examination  of  the  work 
to  be  sustained  in  order  to  ascertain  its 
condition  and  the  amount  of  shoring 
required,  so  that  the  sizes  and  quanti- 
ties of  timbers  may  be  obtained  In 
joint  consultation  they  will  also  arrange 
for  the  placing  of  the  timbers.  All  this 
can  onlv  be  done  by  a  close  scrutiny  of 
the  wall  and  its  requirements. 

When  a  wall  is  so  much  out  of  plumb 
that  it  is  liable  to  topple  over  or  out,  it 
should  be  shored  or  tied  in  such  a  way 
as  to  prevent  its  falling.  As  we  are 
dealing  entirely  with  shoring,  we  will 
consider  that  it  is  necessary  to  do  this 
from  the  outside  of  the  wall.  When  a 
wall  is  as  much  as  i  inch  in  every  foot 


of  its  height  out  of  plumb  it  is  in  a  dan* 
gerous  condition  and  should  be  con- 
demned as  such,  for  the  reason  that  as 
it  is  gradually  moving  outward,  it  will 
eventually  fracture  at  some  point  and 
collapse.  To  prevent  this  shores  should 
be  inserted, 

In  the  first  example  we  will  suppose 
a  piece  of  wall  to  be  perfectly  sound,  or  a 
composite  whole,  with  bonds  adhering, 
which  by  reason  of  the  slipping  of  the 
foundation  or  otherwise  is  gradually 
settling  out  of  plumb  and  leaning  over. 
It  will  then  be  necessary  to  truss  or 


FIG.  1. 

support  the  wall  about  three-quarters 
of  its  height  from  the  top,  as  illustrated 
in  Fig.  1.  The  best  method  of  closing. 


SHORING,   NEEDLING  AND  UNDERPINNING. 


this  would,  of  course,  be  to  set  the  shore 
at  right  angles,  or  square  to  the  face  of 
the  wall.  This  not  being  practicable  on 
account  of  the  absence  of  a  solid  body 
opposite,  against  which  to  rest  the  end 
of  the  Shore,  or  Spreading  Brace,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  employ  a  Raking  or 
'*  Spur  "  Shore  as  an  extemporized  but- 
tress, and  this  spur  brace  is  generally 
a  good  sound  spruce  or  yellow  pine 
timber. 

In  order  to  prevent  its  upper  end 
^rom  slipping,  a  hole  or  notch  is  cut 
out,  off  the  face  of  the  wall,  and  the 
top  is  inserted  in  the  breastwork.  The 
bottom  end  is  set  on  two  reversed 
wedges,  which  rest  on  a  good  block  of 
timber  embedded  solidly  in  the  ground. 
By  driving  the  wedges  the  top  end  of 
the  brace  is  forced  tightly  into  the 
notch  in  the  wall,  thus  securing  the 
wall  firmly  in  position  and  preventing 
its  overturning. 

Spur  braoes  of  this  description  should 
be  of  sufficient  thickness  that  they  will 
not  bend  when  wedged  tightly ,  and  if 
the  wall  be  very  thick  or  heavy,  two  or 
more  may  be  inserted  in  order  to  secure 
it  safely. 

At  Fig.  2  several  shores  are  shown 
applied  in  this  manner,  as  the  wall  being 
dangerously  bulged  at  the  several  floors 


FIG.  2. 

it  is  necessary  to  use  three  shores,  and 
holes  are  cut  in  the  face  of  the  brick- 
work as  before,  to  secure  the  upper 


ends,  while  the  bottom  ends  rest  on  a 
sole  plate,  or  plates,  solidly  embedded 
in  the  ground.  Two  or  more  shores 
may  be  tied  together  by  pieces  of  tim- 
ber, bolted  or  spiked  on  their  sides  in 
the  way  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  in 
Fig.  2. 

The  following  table  gives  dimensions 
for  Raking  or   Spur  ,Shore  timbers,  of 
spruce  or  yellow  pine: 
For  walls  from  Inches.          Inches 

15  to  20  feet  ia  height,  4  x  4  to  6  x  6 
20  "  30  "  •'  4x  8  "  6x8 

30  "  40     "  •«          6x8"     8x10 

40  "  50     "  "          8x8  "  10x10 

50  "  75     "  "        10  x  12  "  12  x  14 

Beyond  this  height  combinations  of 
shores  must  be  used.  "Fly  Shores,"  or 
Spreading  Braces,  as  they  are  frequent- 
ly termed,  are  those  placed  between 
two  walls  to  prevent  them  from  bulg- 
ing or  falling  towards  each  other.  Fig.  3 
represents  a  good  example  of  this  work, 
consisting  of  six  spreaders,  or  Spread- 
ing Braces,  inserted  from  the  floors  of 
the  old  building  as  it  was  demol- 
ished. The  width  between  the  walls 
was  33  feet,  and  the  shores  wedged 
themselves  tightly  from  wall  to  wall, 
each  abutting  against  a  stout  3x8  tim- 
ber, and  driven  to  a  solid  bearing  with 
sledges.  The  timbers  measured  8x8 
inches,  aud  were  prevented  from  sag- 
ging by  diagonal  braces,  framed  in 
under  them  and  spiked.  The  left  hand 
wall  was  also  needled  in  order  to 
rebuild  its  foundation,  as  will  be  de- 
scribed in  "  Underpinning."  The  right 
wall  had  one  Raking  shore,  as  indicated 
in  engraving.  Before  commencing  to 
shore  up  a  solid  front  wall  for  the  inser- 
tion of  a  breast-summer  beam  with  its 
supporting  columns,  the  whole  front 
must  be  carefully  looked  over  to  see 
how  it  is  built,  and  how  the  parts  are 
to  be  supported.  Figs.  4  and  5  represent 
the  front  of  the  Hotel  Colonial,  at  cor- 
ner of  125th  Street  and  Eighth  Avenue, 
New  York  City.  A  consideration  of  this 
wall,  as  shown,  revealed  the  fact  that 
the  piers  would  have  to  be  separately 
supported;  likewise  the  floor  beams, 
which  rested  on  the  wall  to  be  removed. 
To  do  this  a  sole  piece,  or  bottom  tim- 
ber, was  placed  inside  on  the  floor,  run- 
ning parallel  to  the  wall  about  two  feet 
from  it;  the  floor  being  shored  from  the 
cellar  floor  below.  A  similar  piece  was 
set  on  the  sidewalk  outside  about  three 
feet  from  the  wall. 

Directly  under  the  centre  of  each 
pier,  12  inches  above  the  top  line  where 
the  breast-summer  would  rest,  a  hole 


SHORING,   NEEDLING  AND  UNDERPINNING. 


75 


\ 


FIG.  3. 


76 


SHORING,  NEEDLING  AND  UNDERPINNING. 


was  cut  through  by  means  of  a  hammer 
and  cold  chisel.  This  was  done  in  such 
a  way  as  to  leave  the  top  side  of  each 


shores  until  they  pressed  solidly  against 
the  needles  and  entirely  resisted  or  car- 
ried the  weight  of  the  wall  piers  above. 
A  3  x  10  foot  spruce  timber  was  placed 
under  the  floor  beams,  resting  solidly 
on  the  needle,  and  supported  them  in 
an  immovable  manner. 

In  Fig.  6  is  illustrated  an  excellent 
job  of  shoring  which  was  done  at  the 
corner  of  125th  Street  and  Fifth  Ave- 


FIG.  4. 

hole  with  a  smooth  brick  face.  The 
hole  was  about  12  inches  square.  In  it 
a  stout  8x8  timber,  or  needle,  was  in 


FIG. 


sorted,  and  shores  placed  under  it  rest 
ing  on  screws  or  jacks.    These  being 
turned  up  with  an  iron  lever,  raised  the 


FIG.  6. 

nue,  New  York,  where  two  private 
houses  were  remodeled  into  stores,  by 
doing  away  with  the  stoops  and  base- 
ments. Here  the  same  system  was  fol- 
lowed, with  the  addition  of  the  Raking 
corner  shore. 


SHORING,  NEEDLING   AND  UNDERPINNING. 


77 


This  was  placed  in  the  angle  of  the 
wall,  resting  on  a  block  and  wedges  set 
on  the  sidewalk.  The  shore  was  insert- 
ed for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the 
corner  from  springing  out  while  the 
breast- summers  were  being  inserted  and 
the  pier  rebuilt  underneath  them. 

The  appliances  necessary  to  do  the 
work  consist  of  the  timbers  to  form 
the  shores  and  needles,  wedges  and 
screw  jacks.  The  timbers  may  be  of 
spruce  or  yellow  pine,  but  the  wedges 
are  best  made  of  oak.  In  Fig.  7  is  illus- 


FIG.  7. 

trated  a  screw  jack  employed  for  this 
kind  of  shoring.  As  will  be  seen,  it  con- 
sists of  an  iron  shoe,  or  sole  plate,  which 
rests  directly  on  the  timber  placed  on 
the  sidewalk  and  a  revolving  screw, 
which  has  its  bottom  end  turning  in  a 
conical  step  in  the  shoe,  and  revolves  in 
an  upper  plate  on  which  the  bottom  end 
of  the  shore  rests,  the  shore  being  bored 
out  to  admit  the  screw  and  allow  the 
shore  to  slide  up  or  down.  The  screw  is 
turned  by  means  of  an  iron  bar,  or  lever, 
as  shown.  This  Builders'  screw,  or  pump 
screw,  as  it  is  sometimes  termed,  is  the 
best  and  safest  for  placing  under  shores, 
being  preferable  to  what  is  commonly 
known  as  a  lifting  jack  for  the  reason 
that  it  cannot  possibly  fall  or  kick  over 
sideways.  The  lifting  jack  is,  however, 
extremely  useful  for  the  purposes  where 
that  shown  in  Fig.  7  would  be  unsuited. 
Both  these  appliances  are  easily  ob- 
tained, and  run  in  sizes  as  follows  : 

REGULAR  SIZES. 

Height  when  screwed  down : 

10, 12,  14   16  inches. 
Total  rise  of  screw : 

4K,  «K,  8^,  UK  inches. 
Diameter  of  screw : 

IK,  IK,  IK,  IK  inches. 


HEAVY. 

Height  when  screwed  down  : 

10,  12,  14,  16  inches. 
Total  rise  of  screw  : 

7,  8,  9,  11  inches. 
Diameter  of  screw: 

IK,  !K-  *K,  IK  inches. 

EXTRA   HEAVY. 

Height  when  screwed  down: 

12,  14,  16  inches. 
Total  rise  of  screw : 

8.  9,  10^  inches. 
Diameter  of  screw : 

1  #,!#,!  finches. 

When  it  is  desired  to  remove  an  in- 
side, or  party ,  wall  to  obtain  an  enlarged 
floor,  the  floor  timbers  resting  on  it  will 
require  to  be  upheld  by  shoring  before 
it  is  removed. 


FIG.  8. 

In  Fig.  8  builders  will  recognize  a  job 
of  this  kind,  where  it  is  desired  to  re- 
move a  12-inch  brick  wall  and  substi- 
tute for  same  a  steel  girder  supported 
by  cast  iron  columns.  Shores  8x8 
inches  in  size  are  used,  resting  on  8  x  8 
inch  longitudinal  timbers  and  driven 
tightly  against  the  plate  with  oak 
wedges.  If  the  walls  are  continuous 
from  one  floor  to  that  above,  the  upper 
part  of  the  wall  will  require  needling 
as  well  as  shoring.  In  raising  roofs  or 
floors  the  lifting  jack  screw  is  em- 
ployed, and  blocks  laid  crosswise  on  top 
of  each  other  are  placed  under  the 
jacks  before  commencing  operations. 


78 


SHORING,   NEEDLING  AND  UNDERPINNING. 


Fig  9  shows  how  the  centre  pier  of 
an  old  building  was  removed  by  first 
needling  and  shoring  and  the  steel 
breast- summer  girder  shown  in  the  en- 
graving inserted,  with  its  ends  resting 
on  the  two  outside  piers,  which  were 
provided  with  granite  templets  to  prop- 
erly sustain  the  vertical  pressure. 


than  6  feet  apart  at  the  most,  and  the 
spur  shore  should  be  a  stout  stick 
heavy  enough  to  carry,  when  notched, 
the  full  weight  to  be  borne. 

An  unusual  form  of  shoring  and  one 
which  will  be  found  very  economical 
and  applicable,  is  that  illustrated  at 
Fig.  11.  Here  a  section  of  two  (east 


Fig.  10  represents  a  simple  way  of 
needling  up  a  wall  for  the  purpose  of 
holding  it  in  a  safe  manner  till  it  is 
altered  or  underpinned.  The  usual  spur 
shore  is  placed  against  the  outside  face 
of  the  wall,  to  prevent  its  springing  out 
with  its  footplate  and  oak  wedges,  and 


and  west)  12-inch  pa,.  t>  walls  are  s  hown 
looking  towards  the  front,  the  building 
between  them  having  been  pulled  down. 
The  footings  of  the  two  walls  are  carried 
on  a  stout  14  x  14  yellow  pine  cantilever 
needles  resting  on  stringer  and  block- 
ings, this  being  done  for  the  purpose  of 


FIG. 


from  this  the  outside  end  of  the  needle 
is  held  up  to  sustain  the  wall,  the  inside 
end  resting  on  12  x  12  blocks  built  up 
in  the  ordinary  way.  The  iron  suspen- 
sion rods  are  each  1  inch  thick,  and 
tapped  top  and  bottom  ends  for  plates 
and  nuts.  These  spring  needles  must 
be  kept  very  close  together,  not  more 


underpinning  the  party  foundation  by 
building  it  down  in  sections  between 
them.  The  party  walls  are  prevented 
from  spreading  by  spurs  set  on  the  can- 
tilevers at  the  first  story,  and  above 
by  Raking  spreaders  tightly  wedged 
against  face  timbers,  all  being  spaced 
about  8  feet  apart. 


SHORING,  NEEDLING  AND  UNDERPINNING. 


l..  .  - 


1 
I          i 

i : 


. 


I 


.80 


SHORING,  NEEDLING  AND  UNDERPINNING. 


CHAPTER  II. 


UNDERPINNING  AND  SHEET  PILING. 


IT  often  happens  that  the  foundation 
of  a  new  building  is  to  be, con- 
structed close  to  an  adjoining  struc- 
ture, the  footings  of  which  have  not 
been  carried  down  to  the  depth  that  is 
required  for  the  new  building.  If  the 
soil  or  bottom  upon  which  the  existing 
building  rests  is  soft  clay  and  sand, 
gravel,  loose  sand,  or  in  fact  any  soft 
soil  that  would  be  liable  to  compress, 
crush,  or  subside  when  the  excavations 
for  the  new  building  are  proceeding, 
then  proper  precautions  must  be  taken 
to  preserve  the  old  or  existing  building 
from  injury  and  prevent  it  from  sud- 
denly settling  and  thus  causing  the 
walls  to  fracture  or  collapse.  Such  a 
condition  of  affairs  is  shown  in  Fig.  12. 
In  this  case  the  bottom  of  the  excava- 
tion for  the  new  building  is  10  feet 
below  the  curb  line,  while  the  footing 
of  the  old  building  is  only  4  feet  from 
the  curb  line.  From  this  figure  it  can 
readily  be  seen  that  the  wall  of  the  old 
building  would  crush  the  earth  under, 
neath  its  footings  after  the  excavation 
.for  the  new  foundation  had  been  made. 
To  avoid  such  a  disaster,  builders  and 
house  snorers  place  temporary  supports 
underneath  the  walls  of  the  old  build- 
ing, so  that  they  will  be  safely  carried 
until  a  new  foundation  can  be  built. 
The  purpose  of  such  shores  is  usually  to 
support  the  old  wall  until  the  new 
foundation  can  be  built  from  the  bottom 
of  the  excavation  up  to  the  old  foot- 
ings. 

This  question  of  UNDERPINNING  is  one 
that  is  of  great  interest  to  architects 
and  owners,  for  miny  important  legal 
cases  have  had  their  origin  in  a  plea  for 
damages  instituted  by  owners  whose 
buildings  were  ruined  by  carelessness 
in  excavating  for  the  foundations  of 
adjacent  buildings  In  large  cities  the 
importance  of  protecting  existing  struc- 
tures from  damage  caused  by  adjacent 
building  operations  became  evident  to 
the  lawmakers,  and  laws  and  ordi- 
nances governing  such  cases  were 
drawn  up  and  adopted,  and  in  most 
cases  rigorously  enforced;  so  that  I 
here  reproduce  the  following  quotation 
from  the  complete  laws  of  New  York, 
which  show  conclusively  the  extent  and 
purpose  of  such  an  ordinance,  and  show 
the  reader  how  important  it  is  to  provide 
adequate  methods  of  underpinning. 


EXCAVATIONS  AND  FOUNDATIONS. 

"Sec.  22.  Excavations. — All  excava- 
tions for  buildings  shall  be  properly 
guarded  and  protected  so  as  to  prevent 
the  same  from  becoming  dangerous  to 
life  or  limb  and  shall  be  sheath -piled 
where  necessary  to  prevent  the  adjoin- 
ing earth  from  caving  in,  by  the  per- 
son or  persons  causing  the  excavations 
to  be  made.  Plans  filed  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Buildings  shall  be  accompanied 
by  a  statement  of  the  character  of  the 
soil  at  the  level  of  the  footings. 

"Whenever  an  excavation  of  either 
earth  or  rock  for  building  or  other  pur- 
poses shall  be  intended  to  be,  or  shall 
be  carried  to  the  depth  of  more  than 
ten  feet  below  the  curb,  the  person  or 
persons  causing  such  excavation  to  be 
made  shall  at  all  times,  from  the  com- 
mencement until  the  completion  there- 
of, if  afforded  the  necessary  license  to 
enter  upon  the  adjoining  land,  and  not 
otherwise,  at  his  or  their  own  expense 
preserve  any  adjoining  or  contiguous 
wall  or  walls,  structure  or  structures 
from  injury,  and  support  the  same  by 
proper  foundations,  so  that  the  said 
wall  or  walls,  structure  or  structures, 
shall  be  and  remain  practically  as  safe 
as  before  such  excavation  was  com- 
menced, whether  the  said  adjoining  or 
contiguous  wall  or  walls,  structure  or 
structures,  are  down  more  or  less  than 
ten  feet  below  the  curb.  If  the  neces- 
sary license  is  not  accorded  to  the  per- 
son or  persons  making  such  excavation, 
then  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  owner 
refusing  to  grant  such  license  to  make 
the  adjoining  or  contiguous  wall  or 
walls,  structure  or  structures,  safe,  and 
support  the  same  by  proper  foundations 
so  that  adjoining  excavations  may  be 
made,  and  shall  be  permitted  to  enter 
upon  the  premises  where  such  excava- 
tion is  being  made  for  that  purpose, 
when  necessary.  If  such  excavation 
shall  not  be  intended  to  be,  or  shall  not 
be,  carried  to  a  depth  of  more  than  ten 
feet  below  the  curb,  the  owner  or  own- 
ers of  such  adjoining  or  contiguous  wall 
or  walls,  structure  or  structures,  shall 
preserve  the  same  from  injury,  and  so 
support  the  same  by  proper  foundations 
that  it  or  they  shall  be  and  remain  prac- 
tically as  safe  as  before  such  excavation 
was  commenced, and  shall  be  permitted 
to  enter  upon  the  premises  where  such 
excavation  is  being  made  for  that  pur- 
pose, when  necessary. 


SHORING,  NEEDLING  AND  UNDERPINNING. 


81 


"  In  case  an  adjoining  party  wall  is 
intended  to  be  used  by  the  person  or 
persons  causing  the  excavation  to  be 
made,  and  suoh  party  wall  is  in  good 
condition  and  sufficient  for  the  uses  of 
the  adjoining  building,  then  and  in  such 
case  the  person  or  persons  causing  the 


FIG.  12. 


excavations  to  be  made  shall,  at  his  or 
their  own  expense,  preserve  such  party- 
wall  from  injury  and  support  the  same 
by  proper  foundations,  so  that  said  party 
wall  shall  be  and  remain  practically  as 
safe  'as  before  the  excavation  was  com- 
menced. 

"  If  the  person  or  persons  whose  duty 
it  shall  be  to  preserve  or  protect  any 
wall  or  walls,  stru  cture  or  structures, 
from  injury  shall  neglect  or  fail  so  to 
do,  after  having  had  a  notice  of  twenty- 
four  hours  from  the  Department  of 
Buildings,  then  the  Commissioner  of 
Buildings  may  enter  upon  the  premises 
and  employ  such  labor,  and  furnish 
such  materials,  and  take  such  steps  as, 
in  his  judgment,  may  be  necessary  to 
make  the  same  safe  and  secure,  or  to 
prevent  the  same  from  becoming  unsafe 
or  dangerous,  at  the  expense  of  the  per- 
son or  persons  whose  duty  it  is  to  keep 
the  same  safe  and  secure.  Any  party 
doing  the  said  work,  or  any  part  there- 
of, under  and  by  direction  of  the  said 
Department  of  Buildings,  may  bring 
and  maintain  an  action  against  the  per- 
son or  persons  last  herein  referred  to, 
to  recover  the  value  of  the  work  done 
and  material  furnished  in  and  about  the 


said  premises  in  the  same  manner  as  if 
he  had  been  employed  to  do  the  said 
work  by  the  said  person  or  persons. 
When  an  excavation  is  made  on  any 
lot,  the  person  or  persons  causing  such 
excavation  to  be  made  shall  build,  at 
his  or  their  own  cost  and  expense,  a 
retaining  wall  to  support  the  adjoining 
earth,  and  such  retaining  wall  shall  be 
carried  to  the  height  of  the  adjoining 
earth,  and  be  properly  protected  by 
coping.  The  thickness  of  a  retaining 
wall  at  its  base  shall  be  in  no  case  less 
than  one-fourth  of  its  height." 

When  the  excavation  for  a  new  build- 
ing is  being  executed  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  contractor  or  his  foreman  to  stop 
the  excavation  at  the  bottom  of  the 
stone  or  concrete  footings  of  any  or  all 
contiguous  buildings,  and  the  excava- 
tions should  not  be  allowed  to  proceed 
until  the  foundation  walls  and  footings 
of  buildings  that  are  liable  to  damage 
have  been  properly  and  thoroughly  pro- 
tected, either  by  temporary  shoring, 
needling,  or  by  thorough  underpinning. 
The  best  way  to  protect  the  foundations 
of  a  building  having  solidly  built  walls 
and  where  the  footings  are  some  dis- 
tance above  the  bottom  of  the  excava- 
tion, is  to  insert  timber  needles  through 
the  wall,  either  under  the  base  store  or 
the  concrete  footings.  If  the  walls  are 


FIG.  13. 

to  be  underpinned  with  a  continuous 
stone  or  brick  underpinning,  they  may 
be  needled  under  the  superimposed 
brickwork  at  the  top  of  the  stone 
foundation  work,  as  shown  in  Fig.  13. 


SHORING,  NEEDLING  AND  UNDERPINNING. 


In  this  figure  the  needle  is  re-enforced 
or  stiffened  by  a  second  timber  placed 
on  iis  upper  side,  to  prevent  sagging 
under  the  weight  of  the  wall.  The 
shores  or  uprights  are  likewise  often 
doubled,  in  order  to  guard  against  any 
settlement  at  the  sole  pieces,  or  plates. 
In  such  a  case  two  sets  of  uprights  are 
used,  one  set  having  pump  screws  and 
the  other  being  provided  with  wedges 
so  that  should  settlement  take  place  in 
the  inner  shores,  or  those  marked  a,  a 


needles  show  any  indications  of  buck- 
ling or  bulging,  raking  or  spur  shores 
may  be  placed  at  the  second  or  third- 
story  tier  of  beams.  These  pi  ops  will 
steady  the  wall  and  present  any  danger 
of  collapse. 

The  illustration  of  Fig.  14  shows  a 
good  method  of  combining  blocking, 
needling,  and  shoring  for  the  purpose 
of  underpinning  the  wall  without  en- 
croaching upon  the  built  and  occupied 
premises.  In  this  figure  the  cantilever 


FIG.  14. 

in  Fig.  13,  the  wedges  under  the  outside 
ones  can  be  driven  up  tight,  thus  re- 
lieving the  inner  shores  of  much  of  the 
weight.  The  needles  and  shores  should 
be  kept  from  6  to  8  feet  apart  and  set 
level  and  plumb,  likewise  solid.  When 
sufficient  needles  are  inserted  in  the 
manner  described,  the  wall  will  corbel 
or  arch  itself  between  them,  and  the 
intervenin  g  stonework  may  be  removed , 
the  new  foundation  wall  being  built  up 
from  the  bottom  of  the  excavation,  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  12. 
Should  the  wall  that  is  supported  upon 


FIG.  15. 

or  needle  is  a  strong  12"  X  12"  oak  or 
yellow-pine  timber,  resting  upon  the 
blocking  which  is  placed  upon  the  firm 
bottom  of  a  trench  or  hole  dug  to  the 
same  level  as  the  new  adjoining  exca- 
vation. The  blocking  is  located  at  about 
one-fourth  the  length  of  the  cantilever 
or  needle  beam  from  its  end,  the  beam 
being  held  in  equilibrium  by  the  spur 
or  raking  shore  that  has  its  upper  end 
set  in  the  wall  at  the  second-story  tier 
of  fioorbeams.  The  spur  or  raking 
shore,  besides  holding  the  needle  beam 
in  equilibrium,  also  prevents  the  wall 
from  bulging.  The  bottom  end  of  the 
shore  is  prevented  from  slipping  by  the 
heavy  oak  blocks  and  wedges  shown  in 
Fig.  14.  For  further  security  against 
slipping,  stout  2  inch  braces  or  tiers  are 
often  nailed  or  spiked  to  each  side  of 
the  brace  or  needle. 

Many  contractors  follow  the  method 
of  underpinning  illustrated  in  Fig.  15. 
and  where  this  is  employed  no  shoring 
or  needling  need  be  used,  since  the  wall 
is  supported  directly  from  the  bottom 
of  the  adjoining  excavation  on  granite 
or  iron  posts.  These  posts  or  supports 
are  inserted  in  recesses,  or  chases,  cut 
out  of  the  old  wall  to  admit  them.  This 
can  safely  be  done,  as  the  brickwork 
corbels  or  arches  itself  between  the  in- 


SHORING,  NEEDLING  AND  UNDERPINNING. 


serted  supports.  Where  such  methods 
of  procedure  are  employed,  the  posts 
are  set  on  stone  bases  of  sufficient 
area  and  capped  with  two  bluestone 
plates  or  station  templets,  the  wall 
being  brought  to  a  bearing  upon  the 
posts  by  driving  wrought-iron  wedges 


cement  mortar  before  being  wedged 
up  tightly.  The  writer  has  seen  many 
gable  walls  safely  underpinned  by  this 
method,  and  remembers  that  in  one  case 
the  posts  used  were  old  front  first-story 
columns  that  had  only  supported  a 
granite  lintel  in  the  old  fashioned  way 


• «CICNCC  AND 


FIG.  16. 


between  the  templets  until  the  maul  re- 
bounds and  they  cannot  be  driven  any 
farther.  The  templets  must  in  all  cases 
be  bedded  in  good  strong  Portland 


Pump  ScrfHf 


3X8" 


0J00 


in 


FIG.  17. 


still  to  be  seen  in  many  existing  build- 
ings constructed  previous  to  the  exten- 
sive mtroductiou  of  cast-iron  columns. 
When  the  excavation  is  carried  down  to 
a  great  depth,  it  is  necessary  to  use 
brick  piers  with  mortar  instead  of  gran- 
ite or  cast  iron  posts,  and  when  such 
piers  are  used  care  must  be  taken  to  see 
that  they  have  sufficient  sectional  area 
to  fully  support  the  loads  coming  upon 
them  from  the  building. 

Fig.  16  shows  the  method  of  under- 
pinning by  use  of  brick  piers  well 
bonded  In  this  case  the  bottom  of  the 
excavation  of  the  new  building  is  so 
far  below  the  old  footings  that  the 
rough  rubble  wall  forming  the  old 
foundation  had  better  be  removed  and 
the  sides  between  the  piers  filled  in  with 
a  light  retaining  wall  of  stone  or  brick. 
Should  the  bottom  of  the  excavation 
for  the  piers  prove  to  be  of  soft  earth,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  distribute  the 
weight  of  the  building  by  footings  con- 
sisting of  grillage,  ranging  timbers,  or 
inverted  arches.  Where  such  a  condi- 
tion exists,  the  special  foundation  should 
be  put  in  place  before  the  piers  are  built 
in,  and  such  shoring  and  needling  as 
will  be  necessary  should  be  provided. 
It  can  readily  be  seen  that  such  founda- 
tions, and  especially  theinverted  arches, 
could  not  be  safely  built  without  first 
supporting  the  old  work  above.  The 


84 


SHORING,  NEEDLING  AND  UNDERPINNING. 


dotted  lines  in  Fig.  16  show  the  inverted 
arches  and  also  the  concrete  footing. 
Before  the  wedges  between  the  tern- 

Slets  on  the  top  of  the  brick  piers  are 
riven  tight,   the  mortar  in  the  piers 
must  be  given   ample  time  to  set,  in 
order  that  full  strength  of  the  brickwork 
may  be  realized  before  they  are  subjected 


liable  than  vertical  shores  supporting 
horizontal  needles,  because,  on  account 
of  the  increased  area  of  the  base,  there 
is  less  lateral  movement.  It  is  really 
the  only  method  to  employ  where  the 
entire  story  is  to  be  removed  in  order  to 
make  alterations,  but  it  has  the  disad- 
vantage of  taking  up  space  and  requir- 


FIG.  18. 


to  the  weight  from  above.  It  is  a  good 
practice  and  a  precaution  that  should 
never  be  neglected,  to  lower  the  shoring 
under  needling  very  gradually,  so  that 
no  sudden  shock  will  come  upon  the 
new  work. 

Fig.  17  illustrates  clearly  the  method 
by  which  a  girder  may  be  supported 
upon  a  grillage  of  heavy  timbers  laid 
across  each  other  at  right  angles.  If 
the  blocks  are  available  and  of  regular 
sizes,  this  method  is  safer  and  more  re- 


ing  considerable  material  in  the  way  of 
timber. 

In  conclusion,  the  writer  would  im- 
press upon  all  those  engaged  in  the 
practice  of  architecture  or  building 
operations  the  importance  of  observing 
every  precaution  for  the  preservation  of 
foundations  supporting  the  adjacent 
buildings.  The  careful  consideration  of 
this  subject  is  of  pre-eminent  import- 
ance at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth 
century,  when  buildings  of  great  height 


SHORING,  NEEDLING  AND  UNDERPINNING. 


85 


and  weight  are  often  erected  adjacent 
to  or  between  low  and  light  buildings, 
and  should  there  be  no  precaution  taken , 
it  is  not  only  possible  but  highly  proba- 
ble that  the  result  will  be  disastrous, 
for  the  heavy  mass  of  the  greater  struc- 
ture will  drag  down  and  injure  the 
smaller  one.  This  is  especially  the  case 
where  the  composition  of  the  earth 
under  the  footing  is  of  a  compressible 
nature.  The  proper  consideration  of 
foundations  and  footings  has  never  re- 
quired more  skill  and  care  in  the  his- 
tory of  building  construction  than  it 
does  now,  and  should  never  for  any 
reason  be  neglected. 

SHEET  PJLING. 

By  this  is  meant  the  method  employed 
by  engineers  and  constructors  to  prop- 
erly support  sidewalk  banks  of  streets, 
clay,  sand  or  filled  in,  or  any  bank, 
while  excavating  for  cellars,  walls, 
trenches,  caissons,  or  any  purpose  where 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  bank  vertical 
after  it  is  excavated,  to  prevent  its  cav- 


ing in  on  the  men  working,  or  the  mate- 
rials placed  below.  Ihis  is  done  by 
driving  down  2  or  3-inch  planks  placed 
edged,  in  the  manner  seen  in  Fig.  19. 
Across  the  inside  of  these  stout  timbeis 
stringers  are  set,  being  held  in  place  by 
upright  battens,  which  receive  the 
thrust  of  spreading  shores,  abutted  and 
wedged  tightly,  to  prevent  the  pressure 
of  the  earth  from  pushing  the  timbers 
out.  The  bottom  end  of  the  spreaders 
are  either  set  against  a  stout  sole  ground 
piece  of  timber  or  against  an  opposite 
bank,  as  done  in  the  excavating  of 
deep  trenches,  etc.,  for  footings  of 
foundation  walls,  piers,  etc.  All  mate- 
rials for  sheet-piling,  shores,  breast- 
timbers,  foot  blocks,  wedges,  screws, 
etc  ,  ought  to  be  of  good  sound  mate- 
rials of  ample  strength  to  safely  sustain 
all  the  weight  and  use  that  they  may 
be  called  upon  to  bear. 

The  placing  of  sheet-piling,  timbers, 
etc.,  should  be  in  such  position  as  not 
to  interfere  with  the  placing  of  walls 
and  columns  or  footings  of  same. 


noon  DBAPTTPAT  nnnv 

liuull    liAblluAL  DIM 


-is- 


PRACTICAL  CENTRING 


J 
TREATING  OF  THE  PRACTICE  OF 


Centring  Arches  in  filling  Construction, 

AS   CARRIED  ON  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AT  THE  PRESENT  TIME  ;    ALSO  GIVING 
OTHER  USEFUL  INFORMATION   OF  VALUE  TO  THE  TRADE. 


By  OWEN   B.  MAGINNIS. 


6  x  9%  INCHES  ;    65  ILLUSTRATIONS  ;    80  PAGES,  CLOTH. 


A  valuable  book  for  carpenters,  embracing  in  d  etail  and  in  a  practical  manner 
the  construction  of  centres.  It  is  comprised  in  sixteen  chapters,  the  first  four  of 
which  cover  arches  of  small  span  to  those  of  sixteen  feet  span.  Following  these 
are  centring  of  circular  windows,  suspended  centre,  oblique  cr  skew,  flaring  di- 
splayed, wide  spans,  sewer  centres  and  plumb  rule.  The  work  concludes  with  a 
number  of  useful  hints  and  suggestions,  embracing  each  subject  in  detail,  and  in 
language  that  practical  men  can  understand. 


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